I want to start this overly long post by saying that I have no bone to pick in the ethnicities of the area discussed in this period. I know it can be sensitive to some people, so please keep your sensitivities out. These things happened about 100 generations before any of us were born, keep that number in mind.
After first seeing the reveal of the state of later Germania in the game a while back there has been a lot of discussion regarding what a more correct representation would be. I hope I can add to that discussion and give some pointers with this post. I want to add that I hope someone a lot more knowledgeable than I comes in and tells me how I am all wrong about all of this - I love history and have a good memory, but my competence on this subject ends there.
Central-Eastern Europe around 300BC
The Pomeranian culture complex was replaced by the Oksywie and Przeworsk cultures around 250BC onwards. The two groups are very similar, but Oksywie has more similarities to its western Jastorf neighbours. It is uncertain what caused this change, but it resulted in a shift in material culture and settlement placement, even if the area covered was largely the same. The Przeworsk may be represented by the Lugi confederation mentioned by Tacitus, and in the late Roman period as Vandals. It seems likely that it, like the coastal Oksywie, Przeworsk represents Germanic groups entering the area but this is still debated. [1]
Discussion: The original population in modern Poland before the arrival of Przeworsk culture may have vacated the area, perhaps heading south-east, for a hundred reasons. Only a few cases of pottery from Pomeranian and the latter two groups have been found together [1] and the two fashions are dissimilar. Also settlements are not the same before and after, with discontinued settlement where predominantly Pomeranian artifacts have been found. The end result was that between 250 and 200 BC Pomeranian was more or less entirely replaced by Oksywie on the Baltic coast and by Przeworsk everywhere else, implying large scale movements of populations considering that basic material culture as pottery was almost entirely replaced.
The Bastarnae and Sciri
The Sciri and Bastarnae are believed by some to be local Przeworsk expressions further east, taking shape as the Zarubintsy and Poienesti-Lukashevka cultures, respectively. This may be the basis of the assertion that the two tribal groups were Germanic, which Tacitus also reports [1]. A problem with this view is that Zarubintsy and Poienesti-Lukashevka cultures had disappeared by the 1st century AD, allowing one to wonder how the Bastarnae are mentioned in classical sources up until 300 AD.
Poienesti-Lukashevka has also been linked to the Costoboci, probably a Dacian tribe located in northern Moldavia, and Zarubintsy's core is in western Ukraine while the Bastarnae are known to have settled near the Danube delta. This makes classifying the Bastarnae even more difficult as the archaeological record is mixed or scant.
There is also an argument for them being of the Pomeranian culture who preceded the Przeworsk or even proto-Slavic, and migrated east[1], but their identity at the time of their appearence near the Greek colony of Olbia in 230 BC is an unknown due to the complex and varied archaeological cultures in modern Moldavia and southern Ukraine.
Plutarch and Livy suggested the Bastarnae were of Celtic descent while others (Tacitus, Cassius Dio, Zosimus, Pliny) veer towards Germanic or even Sarmatian or Venetic. These may all be classifications that are more geographical than ethnic, linguistic and cultural, and we may never know for sure.
The Sciri name can mean ”pure” in both proto-germanic and proto-baltic (compare to Lithuanian ”skaistus” which means bright, pure) The Bastarnae name can similarly be derived from bastunas in Lithuanian which means wanderer, vagabond. Contrast this with bast- in germanic languages meaning impure.
Discussion: These may, as the sources mention, be the missing ”Pomeranian culture people” who seemingly left today's Poland before the Przeworsk burst onto the scene. The timing seemingly lines up but other than that there is no red thread to hold onto when trying to identify them. I don't personally believe they are clearly Germanic, both due to their name which would hint towards impurity in proto-germanic (which makes no sense unless the cultural connotations of the time made it a positive – contrast with Sciri and later Ubi whose names mean the opposite) and how Przeworsk seems to replace Pomeranian just before they arrive at Olbia in 230BC. I would place them in the same ”Baltic” group as the Aesti, Veneti and Sciri (or them and Sciri in their own Bastarnae group), and place them in southern-central Poland, poised to migrate south-east without much initial opposition.
Goths and Gepids
In the 1st century AD the Wielbark culture replaced the earlier Oksywie culture, and expanded into eastern Poland and north-western Ukraine in the 2nd century AD to sit side-by-side with the earlier Przeworsk culture. This is often associated with the expansion of the Goths and Gepids mentioned by Jordanes and Cassiodorus, but there is little proof of this in Wielbark [1]. This is lately challenged by findings in Wielbark areas compared to earlier Oksywie, where traits similar to those in contemporary Scandinavia and Elbe basin have been found, such as the Odry stone circles and particular spurs in elite burials, that were not there prior [7] [8].
Discussion: I would discount the idea that an entire people calling themselves the Goths migrated from southern Sweden into Poland and transformed everything in one fell swoop. Instead, if we for discussion's sake assume that the ”Goths” originate in Scandinavia, I would propose that the ”Goths” may have been smaller war-parties or exiled nobles from Scandinavia who identified as ”Goths”, arrived at the mouth of the Vistula in the 1st century AD and through a period of raiding and conquest supplanted the existing nobility and imposed their chosen name on the native population (Segway: This is how I would explain the Ubi, who lived in Celtic oppidae and used Celtic stuff but whose name is proto-germanic for ”higher” or ”above” - maybe they were a Germanic warrior elite who supplanted the Celtic elite, and took the name Ubi to differentiate themselves from their Celtic, not-Ubi (lower) subjects).
This could explain how burials changed as Oksywie gave way to Wielbark, as we are much more likely to dig up imperishable materials in elite burials than in commoners'. Contrast this with the transition from Pomeranian to Perzeworsk, which saw huge changes to even pottery [1] which indicates a large population shift. Either way, ”Goths” did not arrive in continental Europe in any force until after the game's time frame, but for gameplay's one could argue for a ”Gothic” tribe in southern Scandinavia in-game for those who want to recreate the Gothic migrations, just a few hundred years early.
The Lugi and the Vandals
The Lugi tribal grouping was pinned as Germanic by Tacitus but he was keen to note they were different from the other Germanic groupings (Istvaeones, Ingvaeones, Irminones). Several other authors of the time mention the Lugi in the same approximate location, but only one mentions the Vandals (Pliny). The two groups are both associated with the Przeworsk culture, which has continuity from its appearance in the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD [1]. If the Lugi were Germanic their federation's name is odd as it is similar to the Celtic diety Lugus (mentioned by Caesar) who may have been a patron god. Theirs must be a mixed affiliation as the above discussion on Przeworsk implies, with no easy out on their culture.
Discussion: If they were "properly Germanic" the patron god would have been Tiwas, or Tuist (later Tyr). I think it would be a mistake to put a Przeworsk tribal grouping (who were made up of many tribes with different cultural affiliations) with apparently a Celtic patron god as Germanic or Celtic in game. It should be something else, something distinct, aka Lugian. All ancient authors mention they are Germanic, but this is likely just in the geographical sense (extreme example: same as Syrians and Chinese are both Asians) as especially Tacitus makes a clear distinction between them and confirmed Germanic Irminones etc. The Lugi tribal confederation could start around modern Poznan, with opportunities to strike east as the Perzeworsk did. The Vandals should not be present, as the Lugi seems to have become the Vandals, as once one is mentioned the other is not. Moreover the Vandals' first mention is far into Rome's Imperial period.
Celtic tribes and influences in Central Europe
There are solid finds of La Tene culture in southern Poland, specifically in the area around Krakow, upper Silesia, and on the San River (San is River in Celtic) [1] [5]. Another possible location occupied by La Tene Celts is the Calissia mentioned by Ptolemy which may be modern Kalisz, which is sat on the in Antiquity well-known Amber Route [4].
The supposed Celts in Silesia congregated around Mount Sleza and Glubzyce, defined into two groups. Around 120BC the one near Glubzyce seems to have disappeared, but the Sleza group migrated south into Upper Silesia. The Celts near Krakow seem to have arrived around 270BC, becoming the mixed Tyniec group which persisted to around 30 BC. It is postulated the the Tyniec group were reinforced by refugees from Pannonia following Burebista's invasion, prolonging their presence [10] [11]. The Tyneic apparently had a mint where Celtic silver coins were made in the last century BC [12]. The group in the upper San basin were a presence between 270 BC and 170 BC. Lastly there is the nearby mixed Puchov culture which had clear Celtic influences and must have been in close proximity to the Boii. They may have occupied the Beskids and as far as Krakow, and lasted well into the era of the Roman Empire (270BC-170AD) [10].
Discussion: There is a strong possibility that chieftains and nobility imported La Tene wares for their own use and to display their power and status. Another possibility is that that Celtic elites gained control over these areas and continued to use and in some cases perhaps even craft La Tene style wares (as seen with the coinage at Tyneic). As the game does not model languages but only a vague description called ”culture”, the people in this area could very well be described as Celtic – or a more conservative guess, that the elite pops would be Celtic and the poor pops belong to a local, Przeworsk representation (Lugian?). Either way the Celts seems to not have arrived before 270 BC, a ways into the game's period, so they should not be present in the areas listed above at the start.
However they must have come from somewhere, so perhaps a presence south of the Carpathians and in Bohemia is good enough, but politically fractured to allow some to migrate east and north without being too strong. These migrations also coincide with those who set up the Scordisci polity on the Danube, invaded Greece and created Tylis and Galatia, indicating a ”Celtic explosion” around that time in and around the Balkans. The Puchov culture has been identified with the Cotini, who in-game are south of the Danube which is an error. The other groups could be the Manimi, Diduni and Buri who were all associated with or part of the Lugi confederation in later times according to Tacitus, but whose names could be Celtic.
The full picture (or TL;DR)
The Goths, Vandals and Rugi make no appearance on Continental Europe until much later. This is strongly supported by etymological, archaeological and historical evidence. Instead the area covering modern Poland and the Baltic coast should have distinct cultures for Lemovi, Aesti, (Vistula-) Veneti, Bastarnae, Sciri and Lugi. There should be nearby Celtic tribes whose elites are ready to move into southern Poland and contest it with the Lugi, perhaps eventually being swallowed by them or put in their orbit. The Bastarnae and Sciri should be further east, with a highway towards the Black Sea.
Proposed political setup in 303 BC attached.
References:
[1] Barford, Kobylinski, Krasnodebski (1991) ”Between the Slavs, Balts and Germans: Ethnic problems in the archaeology and history of Podlasie” - Archaeologia Polonia v.29 1991
[2] Kaliff, Anders (2001). ”Gothic Connections. Contacts between eastern Scandinavia and the southern Baltic coast 1000 BC – 500 AD”
[3] Kessler, P L. "Kingdoms of the Germanic Tribes - Goths / Ostrogoths" - www.historyfiles.co.uk
[4] Amber Route Map - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amber_Route_Map.jpg
[5] Ryszard Naglik 2005, Archaeological Motorway
[6] Roger Batty, 2008 ”Rome and the Nomads. The Pontic-Danubian Realm in Antiquity” - Oxford University Press
[7] Odry UNESCO world heritage site
[8] Emilia Smółka ”The presence of spurs in the south-eastern Baltic area in the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period – some remarks” - ISSN 1392-6748
[9] Zbigniew Bukowski 1990, ”Critically about the so-called Amber Route in the Odra and Vistula River basins in the Early Iron Age” Archaeologia Polona vol. 28:1990
[10] Piotr Kaczanowski, Janusz Krzysztof Kozłowski, 1998 ”Najdawniejsze dzieje ziem polskich (do VII w.) (Oldest history of Polish lands (until the 7th century))
[11] Jacek Poleski, Andrzej Chwalba ”Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History)”
[12] Arkadiusz Dymowski "The Use of Celtic and Roman Coins in the Territory of Poland at the Turn of teh Era - in Tandem or Separately? New Finds, New Evidence"
General bibliography and ”red thread” from Europa Barbarorum 2 team's excellent ”Preview: The Lugiones”
After first seeing the reveal of the state of later Germania in the game a while back there has been a lot of discussion regarding what a more correct representation would be. I hope I can add to that discussion and give some pointers with this post. I want to add that I hope someone a lot more knowledgeable than I comes in and tells me how I am all wrong about all of this - I love history and have a good memory, but my competence on this subject ends there.
Central-Eastern Europe around 300BC
The Pomeranian culture complex was replaced by the Oksywie and Przeworsk cultures around 250BC onwards. The two groups are very similar, but Oksywie has more similarities to its western Jastorf neighbours. It is uncertain what caused this change, but it resulted in a shift in material culture and settlement placement, even if the area covered was largely the same. The Przeworsk may be represented by the Lugi confederation mentioned by Tacitus, and in the late Roman period as Vandals. It seems likely that it, like the coastal Oksywie, Przeworsk represents Germanic groups entering the area but this is still debated. [1]
Discussion: The original population in modern Poland before the arrival of Przeworsk culture may have vacated the area, perhaps heading south-east, for a hundred reasons. Only a few cases of pottery from Pomeranian and the latter two groups have been found together [1] and the two fashions are dissimilar. Also settlements are not the same before and after, with discontinued settlement where predominantly Pomeranian artifacts have been found. The end result was that between 250 and 200 BC Pomeranian was more or less entirely replaced by Oksywie on the Baltic coast and by Przeworsk everywhere else, implying large scale movements of populations considering that basic material culture as pottery was almost entirely replaced.
The Bastarnae and Sciri
The Sciri and Bastarnae are believed by some to be local Przeworsk expressions further east, taking shape as the Zarubintsy and Poienesti-Lukashevka cultures, respectively. This may be the basis of the assertion that the two tribal groups were Germanic, which Tacitus also reports [1]. A problem with this view is that Zarubintsy and Poienesti-Lukashevka cultures had disappeared by the 1st century AD, allowing one to wonder how the Bastarnae are mentioned in classical sources up until 300 AD.
Poienesti-Lukashevka has also been linked to the Costoboci, probably a Dacian tribe located in northern Moldavia, and Zarubintsy's core is in western Ukraine while the Bastarnae are known to have settled near the Danube delta. This makes classifying the Bastarnae even more difficult as the archaeological record is mixed or scant.
There is also an argument for them being of the Pomeranian culture who preceded the Przeworsk or even proto-Slavic, and migrated east[1], but their identity at the time of their appearence near the Greek colony of Olbia in 230 BC is an unknown due to the complex and varied archaeological cultures in modern Moldavia and southern Ukraine.
Plutarch and Livy suggested the Bastarnae were of Celtic descent while others (Tacitus, Cassius Dio, Zosimus, Pliny) veer towards Germanic or even Sarmatian or Venetic. These may all be classifications that are more geographical than ethnic, linguistic and cultural, and we may never know for sure.
The Sciri name can mean ”pure” in both proto-germanic and proto-baltic (compare to Lithuanian ”skaistus” which means bright, pure) The Bastarnae name can similarly be derived from bastunas in Lithuanian which means wanderer, vagabond. Contrast this with bast- in germanic languages meaning impure.
Discussion: These may, as the sources mention, be the missing ”Pomeranian culture people” who seemingly left today's Poland before the Przeworsk burst onto the scene. The timing seemingly lines up but other than that there is no red thread to hold onto when trying to identify them. I don't personally believe they are clearly Germanic, both due to their name which would hint towards impurity in proto-germanic (which makes no sense unless the cultural connotations of the time made it a positive – contrast with Sciri and later Ubi whose names mean the opposite) and how Przeworsk seems to replace Pomeranian just before they arrive at Olbia in 230BC. I would place them in the same ”Baltic” group as the Aesti, Veneti and Sciri (or them and Sciri in their own Bastarnae group), and place them in southern-central Poland, poised to migrate south-east without much initial opposition.
Goths and Gepids
In the 1st century AD the Wielbark culture replaced the earlier Oksywie culture, and expanded into eastern Poland and north-western Ukraine in the 2nd century AD to sit side-by-side with the earlier Przeworsk culture. This is often associated with the expansion of the Goths and Gepids mentioned by Jordanes and Cassiodorus, but there is little proof of this in Wielbark [1]. This is lately challenged by findings in Wielbark areas compared to earlier Oksywie, where traits similar to those in contemporary Scandinavia and Elbe basin have been found, such as the Odry stone circles and particular spurs in elite burials, that were not there prior [7] [8].
Discussion: I would discount the idea that an entire people calling themselves the Goths migrated from southern Sweden into Poland and transformed everything in one fell swoop. Instead, if we for discussion's sake assume that the ”Goths” originate in Scandinavia, I would propose that the ”Goths” may have been smaller war-parties or exiled nobles from Scandinavia who identified as ”Goths”, arrived at the mouth of the Vistula in the 1st century AD and through a period of raiding and conquest supplanted the existing nobility and imposed their chosen name on the native population (Segway: This is how I would explain the Ubi, who lived in Celtic oppidae and used Celtic stuff but whose name is proto-germanic for ”higher” or ”above” - maybe they were a Germanic warrior elite who supplanted the Celtic elite, and took the name Ubi to differentiate themselves from their Celtic, not-Ubi (lower) subjects).
This could explain how burials changed as Oksywie gave way to Wielbark, as we are much more likely to dig up imperishable materials in elite burials than in commoners'. Contrast this with the transition from Pomeranian to Perzeworsk, which saw huge changes to even pottery [1] which indicates a large population shift. Either way, ”Goths” did not arrive in continental Europe in any force until after the game's time frame, but for gameplay's one could argue for a ”Gothic” tribe in southern Scandinavia in-game for those who want to recreate the Gothic migrations, just a few hundred years early.
The Lugi and the Vandals
The Lugi tribal grouping was pinned as Germanic by Tacitus but he was keen to note they were different from the other Germanic groupings (Istvaeones, Ingvaeones, Irminones). Several other authors of the time mention the Lugi in the same approximate location, but only one mentions the Vandals (Pliny). The two groups are both associated with the Przeworsk culture, which has continuity from its appearance in the 3rd century BC to the 5th century AD [1]. If the Lugi were Germanic their federation's name is odd as it is similar to the Celtic diety Lugus (mentioned by Caesar) who may have been a patron god. Theirs must be a mixed affiliation as the above discussion on Przeworsk implies, with no easy out on their culture.
Discussion: If they were "properly Germanic" the patron god would have been Tiwas, or Tuist (later Tyr). I think it would be a mistake to put a Przeworsk tribal grouping (who were made up of many tribes with different cultural affiliations) with apparently a Celtic patron god as Germanic or Celtic in game. It should be something else, something distinct, aka Lugian. All ancient authors mention they are Germanic, but this is likely just in the geographical sense (extreme example: same as Syrians and Chinese are both Asians) as especially Tacitus makes a clear distinction between them and confirmed Germanic Irminones etc. The Lugi tribal confederation could start around modern Poznan, with opportunities to strike east as the Perzeworsk did. The Vandals should not be present, as the Lugi seems to have become the Vandals, as once one is mentioned the other is not. Moreover the Vandals' first mention is far into Rome's Imperial period.
Celtic tribes and influences in Central Europe
There are solid finds of La Tene culture in southern Poland, specifically in the area around Krakow, upper Silesia, and on the San River (San is River in Celtic) [1] [5]. Another possible location occupied by La Tene Celts is the Calissia mentioned by Ptolemy which may be modern Kalisz, which is sat on the in Antiquity well-known Amber Route [4].
The supposed Celts in Silesia congregated around Mount Sleza and Glubzyce, defined into two groups. Around 120BC the one near Glubzyce seems to have disappeared, but the Sleza group migrated south into Upper Silesia. The Celts near Krakow seem to have arrived around 270BC, becoming the mixed Tyniec group which persisted to around 30 BC. It is postulated the the Tyniec group were reinforced by refugees from Pannonia following Burebista's invasion, prolonging their presence [10] [11]. The Tyneic apparently had a mint where Celtic silver coins were made in the last century BC [12]. The group in the upper San basin were a presence between 270 BC and 170 BC. Lastly there is the nearby mixed Puchov culture which had clear Celtic influences and must have been in close proximity to the Boii. They may have occupied the Beskids and as far as Krakow, and lasted well into the era of the Roman Empire (270BC-170AD) [10].
Discussion: There is a strong possibility that chieftains and nobility imported La Tene wares for their own use and to display their power and status. Another possibility is that that Celtic elites gained control over these areas and continued to use and in some cases perhaps even craft La Tene style wares (as seen with the coinage at Tyneic). As the game does not model languages but only a vague description called ”culture”, the people in this area could very well be described as Celtic – or a more conservative guess, that the elite pops would be Celtic and the poor pops belong to a local, Przeworsk representation (Lugian?). Either way the Celts seems to not have arrived before 270 BC, a ways into the game's period, so they should not be present in the areas listed above at the start.
However they must have come from somewhere, so perhaps a presence south of the Carpathians and in Bohemia is good enough, but politically fractured to allow some to migrate east and north without being too strong. These migrations also coincide with those who set up the Scordisci polity on the Danube, invaded Greece and created Tylis and Galatia, indicating a ”Celtic explosion” around that time in and around the Balkans. The Puchov culture has been identified with the Cotini, who in-game are south of the Danube which is an error. The other groups could be the Manimi, Diduni and Buri who were all associated with or part of the Lugi confederation in later times according to Tacitus, but whose names could be Celtic.
The full picture (or TL;DR)
The Goths, Vandals and Rugi make no appearance on Continental Europe until much later. This is strongly supported by etymological, archaeological and historical evidence. Instead the area covering modern Poland and the Baltic coast should have distinct cultures for Lemovi, Aesti, (Vistula-) Veneti, Bastarnae, Sciri and Lugi. There should be nearby Celtic tribes whose elites are ready to move into southern Poland and contest it with the Lugi, perhaps eventually being swallowed by them or put in their orbit. The Bastarnae and Sciri should be further east, with a highway towards the Black Sea.
Proposed political setup in 303 BC attached.
References:
[1] Barford, Kobylinski, Krasnodebski (1991) ”Between the Slavs, Balts and Germans: Ethnic problems in the archaeology and history of Podlasie” - Archaeologia Polonia v.29 1991
[2] Kaliff, Anders (2001). ”Gothic Connections. Contacts between eastern Scandinavia and the southern Baltic coast 1000 BC – 500 AD”
[3] Kessler, P L. "Kingdoms of the Germanic Tribes - Goths / Ostrogoths" - www.historyfiles.co.uk
[4] Amber Route Map - https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amber_Route_Map.jpg
[5] Ryszard Naglik 2005, Archaeological Motorway
[6] Roger Batty, 2008 ”Rome and the Nomads. The Pontic-Danubian Realm in Antiquity” - Oxford University Press
[7] Odry UNESCO world heritage site
[8] Emilia Smółka ”The presence of spurs in the south-eastern Baltic area in the Roman Iron Age and Migration Period – some remarks” - ISSN 1392-6748
[9] Zbigniew Bukowski 1990, ”Critically about the so-called Amber Route in the Odra and Vistula River basins in the Early Iron Age” Archaeologia Polona vol. 28:1990
[10] Piotr Kaczanowski, Janusz Krzysztof Kozłowski, 1998 ”Najdawniejsze dzieje ziem polskich (do VII w.) (Oldest history of Polish lands (until the 7th century))
[11] Jacek Poleski, Andrzej Chwalba ”Kalendarium dziejów Polski (Chronology of Polish History)”
[12] Arkadiusz Dymowski "The Use of Celtic and Roman Coins in the Territory of Poland at the Turn of teh Era - in Tandem or Separately? New Finds, New Evidence"
General bibliography and ”red thread” from Europa Barbarorum 2 team's excellent ”Preview: The Lugiones”
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