Medieval Lithuanian History - Lecture Notes - University of Kaunas (a Lithuanian Megacampaign AAR)

[ardsss]

Medieval Lithuanian History – HIST1602 – Lecture Notes - Professor: Jonas Matas –1215 AD -1224 AD –– Class 11 – Rebellion and Reconsolidation​

• The newly acquired lands of Yatvyagi are led by a Russian Orthodox Count Vytautas Astikaitis.
• Dausprungas demands his conversion to consolidate and legitimize his rule.

• Dausprungas’s demand is immediately refused.
• Dausprungas calls of Vytautas’s arrest.
• Vytautas raises his men and declares open rebellion.
• Seeking to reestablish herself as the leader of Zemaitija, Matild mobilizes her own faction and pledges her support.
• Vytautas is also supported by his alliances by other local Russian lords.
• Dausprungas once again calls on his network of Polish dukes to help defend his title.

• However, before the Polish forces can arrive to Dausprungas’s aid he is captured by the rebellion. He is brutally executed by Count Vytautas.
• Once the Polish forces arrive, Vytautas and Matild are both captured and executed.
• Despite the defeat of rebellion’s ringleaders, the realm is severely weakened by Dausprunga’s death.
• His lands are split between his two sons, as the Dukes of Lietuva (Lutuveras) and Zemaitija (Rimgaila).

• Within a year of Lutuveras’s reign he dies from the aggravation of his wounds sustained in battle during Vytautas’s rebellion, and is succeeded by his young son Dausprungas III.

• His mother Adleta of Chelmo, the daughter of the influential Duke of Kujawy, serves as the realm’s regent.
• She is noted for her ambition and much of Dausprungas’s III success as a leader is attributed to her.
• Using her father’s station in the Polish court, Adleta is able to secure Dausprungas III a betrothal to Wolislawa Ossowski, the daughter of the Duke of Mazovia.

• The security from the Mazovian alliance is short-lived as in 1218 AD Wolislawa dies after a period of illness.
• Additionally, Dausprungas’s uncle Duke Rimgaila of Zemaitija, a strong claimant to Dausprungas’s title, also has an alliance with Mazovia.

• Desperate for a viable alliance, Dausprungas betroths Rycheza Bodzeta, the daughter of the powerful Duke Strasz of Gorny Slask.

• Meanwhile, the crusader realm of Zaporoze has passed to the one year old Queen Anele Suvalkija, whose sole heir is the Duke of Mazovia.
• The Kingdom is also subject to various invasions by Turkic tribes in the east.
• This marks a significant change from the Zaporoze’s quick rise to power in the region.

• In 1222 AD, Dausprungas officially presses his claim on Zemaitija, encouraged his mother Adleta.
• Adleta convinces her father to support Dausprungas’s claim.
• The Duke of Mazovia, seeking to limit direct confrontation with its neighbor Kujawy, does not come to Zemaitija’s aid.

• Rimgaila is outnumbered and suffers an early significant defeat in Siauliai.

• Soon after Dausprungas’s forces siege Raiseiniai, capturing Rimgaila and forcing him to surrender.

• A reunited Lietuva stands strong in the Baltic.

• In 1224 Dausprungas officially takes control of the duchy’s affairs, though his mother Adleta remains a trusted advisor during his rule.
  

 

[HistoryDude]

Lithuania is still stuck in a cycle of being divided and reunited, it seems. When will they learn to give the whole realm to one king?

At least the Rurikids were defeated.

 

[ardsss]

Medieval Lithuanian History – HIST1602 – Lecture Notes - Professor: Jonas Matas –1224 AD – 1241 AD– Class 12 – The Crusade for Egypt and the Mongol Warpath​

• In 1229 Dausprungas III officially weds to Rycheza Bodzeta, formalizing the alliance that had secured Dausprungas’s reign.

• Content in the stability of his realm, Dausprungas looks to expand.
• He targets the new established realm of White Rus’ to his east.
• White Rus’s was established by a member of the Rurikid family, who had inherited a modest tract of land.
• Dausprungas was able to rely on the support of his grandfather in Kujawvy and his wife’s family in Gorny Slask.
• White Rus,. Calls in King Andrzej Naklo of Denmark (a cadet member of the a Polish Family) and is joined by his vassal Grand Prince Yuri Okansky of Polotsk.

• Dausprungas’s war first campaign is ill fated, after significant defeats he is forced to surrender.
• The initial clashes were inconclusive.
• A critical battle took place at the stronghold of Polotsk, a critical stronghold of the region.
• The battle turned into protracted siege. The defenders were able to successfully sally forth and repel Dausprungas’s forces several times. Eventually Dausprungas inability to siege the fortress compelled his surrender.

• Reeling from his defeat, Dausprungas learnt of the his grandfather demise in Kujawvy, succeeded by his uncle Aleksander II Chelmo. They quickly signed and alliance strengthening both of their positions.

• Around this time the far off threat of the Mongols had reached the edge of Europe. The Mongols now controlled large areas of land from Mongolia to Persia and the eastern Kingdom of Perym.
• The Mongol conquests and their growing influence cast a shadow of uncertainty and fear over the European rulers.

• In 1231 the Mongols officially entered Zaporoze, which was already weakened by the minor Turkic invasions leading to an ill-prepared resistence.
• The Zaporozens were quickly overrun by the highly organized and relentless Mongols.

• 1232 Zaporoze officially submitted to the Khagan’s rule.

• Internally, Lietuva had lost confidence in Dausprungas’s rule and those close to the duke knew that the realm’s true power was held by his mother Adleta of Chelmo.

• In 1233 the Kingdom of Polska (Poland) once again splintered into two states, the Kingdom of Pomorze (Pomerania).
• Despite Poland being militarily dominant and holding more lands than Pomerania, Lithuania found itself aligned with the latter through Dausprungas’s aunt, Roze Suvalkija, who was the Queen of Pomerania.

• Around this time Lithuania also unexpectedly started a rapprochement with the Kingdom of Kiyev, due to a growing personal friendship in between Lithuania and King Yaroslav Rurikid, evidenced by their personal correspondence.

• Pomerania noticing the inner turmoil of the Holy Roman Empire, caused by the rebellious Kings of Bohemia and Lotharingia, sought territorial gains from its western neighbor.
• King Zbigniew was quick to test the Pomeranian-Lithuania alliance by declaring war on the Holy Emperor.

• By early 1234 the Lithuanian forces arrived in the lands of the Emperor, but were not met with any resistance.

• This false sense of safety was shattered, when Holy Roman Forces attacked the unsuspecting Lithuanians.
• Suffering a brutal defeat in the Battle at Storkow, the Lithuanian forces were routed, ending Lithuania’s involvement in the war.

• By 1236 Lithuanian forces were already embarking on another campaign, when they joined the Popes crusade for Masr (Egypt).

• 1236 also marked a significant political change in Europe after the Kingdom of Hungary dissolved after a long period of instability caused by the impending arrival of the Mongols.
• The Rebellion was spearheaded by Count Laszlo Vesprem and Anna of Borsod, who openly criticized the king and delegitimized his rule. They successfully convinced that the King would submit to Mongol rule.

• The Arpads still maintained some power as Kings of Havaselve (Wallachia).

• Despite the fears of the Hungarians, the Kingdom of Perym was the next target of the Mongol aggression.

• By the Winter or 1237 Lithuanian troops traversed the Bosphorus strait as they headed to Egypt.

• And by spring of 1238 Dausprungas had joined the other expeditionary forces west of Alexandria, as they sought to secure the important Siwah Oasis.

• Perym was fully annexed by July of 1239, and the Mongol threat loomed ever closer to Europe.

• As a result of series of untimely deaths of all of her 6 siblings, Rycheza Bodzeta inherits the Duchy of Gorny Slask in 1239, further interlinking the realms of Lithuania and Poland. This was a success of Adleta Chelmo’s efforts to interlink the relams.

• The Crusade continues in Egypt, without any meaningful resistance from the Muslims, as Alexandria is seized and by 1240 the Crusaders declare their victory.

• Next in the Mongols warpath was the Kingdom of Georgia (Sakartvelo), that had traditionally stood a bulwark in the Caucasus.

• Dausprungas returns to Lietuva after the crusade in early 1241. Despite the recent successes in Egypt Dausprungas now waits in fear for the impending arrival of the Mongols.

​

 

[HistoryDude]

Lithuania doesn't look to be in a great position. They've suffered from a few failed wars, and now the Mongols threaten them.

Maybe surrendering to the Mongols and expanding within the empire would be wiser than a futile resistance?

The Hungarian nobles were worried about a Mongol attack, so they dissolved their kingdom, basically ensuring the success of that attack? What were they thinking?

 

[ardsss]

Lithuania doesn't look to be in a great position. They've suffered from a few failed wars, and now the Mongols threaten them.

Maybe surrendering to the Mongols and expanding within the empire would be wiser than a futile resistance?

The Hungarian nobles were worried about a Mongol attack, so they dissolved their kingdom, basically ensuring the success of that attack? What were they thinking?

Yeah the Hungarian's were really short sighted on that one. However, their court had been full on instability and dissent for a while.

Lithuania is pretty scared of the Mongols, swearing fealty is definitely and option.

 

[overthetop_G]

Maybe go the Russian route, become a tributary- just secure independence by the EU4 timeline.

 

[Bfc kfc]

Lithuania doesn't look to be in a great position. They've suffered from a few failed wars, and now the Mongols threaten them.

Maybe surrendering to the Mongols and expanding within the empire would be wiser than a futile resistance?

The Hungarian nobles were worried about a Mongol attack, so they dissolved their kingdom, basically ensuring the success of that attack? What were they thinking?

The Hungarians have seem to go one step ahead than OTL and actually dissolved the Kingdom. The funny thing is in OTL they didn't want to help the king against the Mongols, now they dissolve it because they fear that the King might be a Mongol collaborator???!!! What an interesting twist...

 

[ardsss]

Medieval Lithuanian History – HIST1602 – Lecture Notes - Professor: Jonas Matas –1241 AD – 1262 – Class 13 – Polish Vassalage and Mongolian Fracture​

• By 1243 the Georgian kings were stripped of their title and forced into vassalage by the Mongol Horde.

• Having secured the Caucasus, the Mongol horde’s eyes then turn to the Eastern Roman Empire, who was in the midst of a civil war.

• In the Balkans, King Ivanis II Vukanic Tripmirovic of Croatia fills the vacuum left by the collapse of the Kingdom of Hungary.

• Within Lithuania, Dausprungas’s rule was in danger as local rulers openly question his capabilities, pointing to his various failed campaigns.
• Dausprungas, with the help of his mother, negotiates a deal with the newly ascended Queen Danuta Ossowski of Poland.
• In exchange for his vassalage and support Danuta guarantees Dausprungas’s rule over Lithuania against internal and external threats.
• Thus in April of 1245 Lithuania officially becomes part of the Kingdom of Poland.

• Soon after the incorporation of Lietuva into Poland. The Mongols, after successfully pillaging and subjugating the Byzantines, cross Kiyev’s border in an act of open aggression.

• In January 1247 Europe receives knowledge of Khagan Temujin’s death. However, this does not stop the Mongolian onslaught.

• Danuta and Dausprungas’s alliance strengthens with the betrothal of Danuta’s daughter Sviatoslava to Dausprungas’s oldest son Daugvilas.

• After receiving a significant sum of royal aid Dausprungas’s supports the urbanization of his lands, preparing Trakai to be Lithuania’s administrative center.

• In late 1251, the Kingdom of Kiyev is fully overrun and the dissolved. Many local rules maintain their rule by swearing fealty and paying tribute. While those that continue to defy the Mongols are systematically stripped of their lands.

• Dausprungas is appointed to Danuta’s council as Steward, significantly increasing his sway over realm policies.

• In March of 1258 Khagan Jochi of the Mongols dies leaving behind a disputed succession. The Khagan had been a powerful leader but his death gave way to the many factions vying for power in the horde.

• After initial posturing and minor skirmishes by the various factions and their preferred heirs Khagan Jochi’s realm is divided into five different hordes, each swearing nominal fealty to Mongolia.
• Khagan Altan rules the Ilkhanate which controls large swatches of territory from the Balkans to Afghanistan.

• Khagan Aldar rules the Altan Ord, which controls most of the Eurasian steppe and Ruthenia.

• Khagan Iturgen manages to assume control of the smallest tract of land in the northern parts of the old Kiyevan kingdom as the Tsagaan Ord.

• Khagan Bidia leads the Chagatai north of the Tibetan plateau and Khagan Joichi leads the Borgijin Khanate from Mongolia.

• With the fracture of the Mongols the European powers seee an opening counterattack, including Dausprungas who attacks the Tsagaan Ord in the summer of 1258.
• Queen Danuta is quick to come to Dausprungas’s aid continuing to strengthen their alliance.

• The border town of Braslav is quickly sieged and the Lithuanian coalition marched to siege the Khagan’s makeshift headquarters in Lukoml.
• The first battle of the campaign takes place in Maladzyechna, where the Lithuanian forces rout the Mongols.
• Soon after a second battle is won in Novogrudok, dealing a heavy blow to the Mongolians.
• With that in 1262 the Lithuanian’s officially seize the county of Breslauja (Braslav) from the Tsagaan Ord and turn it into an important border fortification.

• Thus, Lithuania’s war against the Tsagaan Ord marks the first European victory against the invaders, filling Europe with ambition and hope.

 

[Historywhiz]

Rome falls to the Mongols! Ok, so it’s the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire but still… that would be an epochal, mind-shattering blow to the people of the time. For Constantinople, not decayed remnant of a vestigial state but still the capital of one of the mightiest realms in all Christendom, to succumb to a Mongol pillage and have their banners visible across the Adriatic from Italy… it would have felt like the world was ending. All of European history would be marked as before 1245? and after it to a far greater extent than we dare use 1066 or 1453.

 

[KanadeSomeone]

I really like those Ilkhanate borders... please don't shatter

 

[HistoryDude]

I'm kind of interested in the Ilkhanate's culture. It has to have some Byzantine influence. Shame about Rome falling, though.

I did not see an oath of allegiance to Poland coming. It's certainly a risky move. We'll see if it pays off.

 

[ardsss]

Rome falls to the Mongols! Ok, so it’s the Eastern Roman/Byzantine Empire but still… that would be an epochal, mind-shattering blow to the people of the time. For Constantinople, not decayed remnant of a vestigial state but still the capital of one of the mightiest realms in all Christendom, to succumb to a Mongol pillage and have their banners visible across the Adriatic from Italy… it would have felt like the world was ending. All of European history would be marked as before 1245? and after it to a far greater extent than we dare use 1066 or 1453.

It was quite a traumatic experience for Europe! We’ll see if the occupation lasts. Although, the invasion of Kiyev was much more significant for the Lithuanians. Their long time enemy and the strongest power in the region, completely anihilated.

I really like those Ilkhanate borders... please don't shatter

Aesthetics wise totally agree … but a stable Ilkhanate would be scary lol

I'm kind of interested in the Ilkhanate's culture. It has to have some Byzantine influence. Shame about Rome falling, though.

I did not see an oath of allegiance to Poland coming. It's certainly a risky move. We'll see if it pays off.

Totally. The Khagan definitely adopted byzantine ways and even crowned himself emperor of rome. Although, a the Byzantines were defeated their infrastructure remains, along with the administration. Just making sure they provide enough tribute to their overlords.

 

[overthetop_G]

I see that the polish-lithuanian commonwealth has formed.
Hopefully we can see the Lithuanian dukes become polish kings around 1444.

 

[ardsss]

Medieval Lithuanian History – HIST1602 – Lecture Notes - Professor: Jonas Matas –1262 AD – 1272 AD – Class 14 – Lithuanian Influence in the Kingdom of Poland​

• Dausprungas continues to increase his influence in Queen Danuta’s realm, by securing an alliance with his cousin Swietoslaw Chelmno, the Duke of Kujawy.
• Swietoslaw serves as Danuta’s spymaster and has considerable insight into the realms inner politics.

• In 1263 many of the local rulers under the rule of the Ilkhanate rebel, seeking independence.
• The rebellion is spearheaded by the remnants of the Byzantine empire.

• In September of 1264, Dausprungas’s spouse Rycheza Bodzeta dies, leaving the duchy of Upper Silesia to Dausprungas’s eldest son Daugvilas.

• Countess Birute Hlebowicius of Kernave, Dausprungas’s vassal expands into the Tsagaan Ord’s lands, increasing Lithuanian influence in the region.

• Despite her agreement with Dausprungas ensuring his rule over Lithuania, Danuta crowns herself the Queen of Litwa (Lithuania) in 1264 AD.
• Dausprungas is enraged by the news and refuses to recognize her crown.

• Before Dausprungas can negotiate with Danuta, she dies leaving the crown of Poland and Lithuania to her only son King Sviatoslav Andreievich.
• Dausprungas refuses to formally swear fealty to Sviatoslav.

• In an attempt to appease Dausprungas, Sviatoslav appoints him as the Steward of Poland.
• In exchange for this increased responsibility Dausprungas begrudgingly swears fealty to Sviatoslav, avoiding outright conflict within the realm.

• Despite Sviatoslav’s official title of the King of Lithuania, Dausprungas continues to hold de facto control over the region.

• In 1267 Duke Dausprungas dies from a protracted period of illness.

• Following Lithuanian law, Dausprungas III lands are split among his heirs.
• King Sviatoslav of Poland welcomes the fracturing of Lithuanian power.
• Lutuveras a keen administrator inherits the northern Duchy of Zemaitija.

• Daugvilas, an adept diplomat, inherits the central lands of Lietuva, while also ruling Upper Silesia inherited from his mother.

• The pious Vykintas inherits the newly established Duchy of Gardinas.

• Vaisvilkas inherits the Duchy of Polockas.

• King Sviatoslav of Poland quickly dispatches his dignitaries to stoke the rivalry in between the brothers.
• Duke Lutuveras is married to Wolislawa Ossowski, the sister of the Duke of Masovia, which results in a successful alliance
  
• Weakened, the brothers each spend time currying the favor of King Sviatoslav.

• In the east the Tsagaan Ord continues to fracture, as the Grand Principality of Smolensk is established under Rurikid rule, with support from the Kingdom of Novogorod. This marks a resurgence of Rurikid power in the region.

• In the south the Kingdom of Croatia-Hungary splinters into composite realms after a succession crisis.

• The Ilkhanate having defeated the independence rebellion continues its overlordship of the former lands of the Byzantine Empire. However, the realm’s manpower has been severely impacted by the rebellion.
• Sensing the weakness of the Mongols, Pope Calestinus calls a crusade for the Kingdom of Epirus.
• The Pope seeks to destabilize the Ilkhanate and reassert Christianity in the Balkans.

• By the year 1272 Lithuanian power in Poland is waning as Sviatoslav is able to pit the Suvalkijan dukes against eachother.
• Meanwhile, eastern Europe continues to face significant turmoil under the rule of the Mongol hordes.
• Many European upstarts see this as the perfect circumstance for carving out new realms or expanding their domains.

 

[HistoryDude]

Were you a member of an independence faction, or was the stuff about not swearing fealty just RP?

How far will the new dukes go for power? Will they commit the crime of kinslaying? Will they engage in outright war within the realm? Does Poland have Realm Peace enabled?

 

[ardsss]

Were you a member of an independence faction, or was the stuff about not swearing fealty just RP?

How far will the new dukes go for power? Will they commit the crime of kinslaying? Will they engage in outright war within the realm? Does Poland have Realm Peace enabled?

I don’t think it came to outright independence faction, it was mostly RP. Despite Dausprungas’s posturing he was relying on the Polish for a lot, including realm stability.

Realm peace is not enabled currently. Hopefully the brothers can get out of this unscathed, but only time will tell.

 

[Bfc kfc]

A Guthkeled Hungary? What happened to the Árpáds?

 

[ardsss]

A Guthkeled Hungary? What happened to the Árpáds?

So Hungary collapsed after the vassals basically took a vote of no confidence in the king and accused him of collaborating with the Mongols. After the collapse of Hungary, the Croatian Kingdom filled the vacuum. The crown of Croatia-Hungary then moved to a queen, whose only heirs were Guthkeleds. Thus, Guthkeled Croatia and Hungary is born. (I was rooting for the Croatians too!)

 

[Bfc kfc]

So Hungary collapsed after the vassals basically took a vote of no confidence in the king and accused him of collaborating with the Mongols. After the collapse of Hungary, the Croatian Kingdom filled the vacuum. The crown of Croatia-Hungary then moved to a queen, whose only heirs were Guthkeleds. Thus, Guthkeled Croatia and Hungary is born. (I was rooting for the Croatians too!)

At least we now jet again have a strong Hungary with an interesting historical dynasty!

 

[ardsss]

Medieval Lithuanian History – HIST1602 – Lecture Notes - Professor: Jonas Matas –1272 AD – 1295 AD – Class 15 – Unrest in the East​

• In 1272 AD the Catholics crusade for Epirus is well underway. The Catholic forces, numbered around 56,000, vastly outnumber the remaining Ilkhanate forces of around 11,000
  
• To make the Ilkhanate’s position worse the Fatimid rulers of Egypt are attempt to invade Anatolia.
• The Fatimids were originally displaced by a Crusader in Egypt during the Sixth Crusade in Egypt but had slowly reclaimed their lands since their initial defeat in 1240.

• In the North, the Kingdom of Estonia is inherited by Toke Stenkiling who expands Estonia’s reach deep into Karelia.

• Fearing incursions from the North, Lutuveras betrothes his son Daumantas to Dobroslava Chernyshev, the daughter of Grand Prince of Galitsiya (Galicia).

• In September of 1274, Daugvilas of Lietuva dies prematurely from stress, leaving the duchy to his son Dravenis Suvalkija.
• Dravenis having grown up in the Polish court was distinctly Polish compared to the populace of the Lithuania.

• His younger brother, Vytautas inherits the Duchy of Upper Silesia.

• The weakening Ilkhanate is hit by another Independence war in 1275.

• In 1275 Lutuveras decrees an amendment to Lithuanian succession laws that provide preference to the decedent’s oldest son when dividing up the realm. His amendment is supported by most major vassals.

• The Crusade for Epirus ends with a Catholic victory and the lands are given to King Federigo Wigeriche. Taking advantage of the Crusade, Duke Gilbert Arpad of Pouilles was able to seize significant land from the Ilkhanate.

• The Fatimid push is into the Ilkhanate is interrupted when he passes away after contracting an illness. He is succeeded by his only male son Malik, a 15 year old boy.
• Using the instability during the transition of power a faction spearheaded by Emir Abu-Bakr ibn Abanoub Yousifid incites a mass revolt. The Fatimids are fully stripped of their holdings in Egypt and the majority of their holdings in Syria. What remains is a core territory around Jerusalem and Jordan.

• By 1278, the Ilkhanate recognizes the independence of several of its subjects.
• Notably, the a Bagrationi led Georgia is restored and the Seljuk’s are recognized as the Grand Amir’s of Persia. In addition, several Greek splinter states are freed around the Bosphorus and Thrace.

• In 1278 the Duchy of Plock passes Duke Gediminas, after the death of Lutuveras’s brother Vaisvilkas. Gediminas is extremely ambitious and King Sviatoslav is quick to turn him against his kinsmen.

• In order to combat Gediminas ambitions, Lutuveras attempts to strengthen his bonds with Duke Dravenis of Litwa, his nephew.

• King Sviatozslav of Poland further insults the Suvalkijan’s by starting the conquest of Pruthenia, a land that was originally owned by the Suvalkijan family.

• Diplomatic efforts with Litwa develop into an alliance commemorated by a marriage.

• In 1282 another large rebellion hits the Ilkhanate. As a result the Khagan is made to recognize the independence of most of its Mediterranean vassals. Despite, gaining independence from the Khagan no clear leader emerges from the chaos. Thus, the Balkans and western Anatolia become ruled by minor princedoms, each vying to reclaim the Eastern Roman Empire.

• By 1284 Europe had been convinced that Mongol power as a whole was waning. Therefore, the Polish King was shocked when reports came of a large Mongol host of the Altin Ord crossing over to Volhynia.

• Despite internal tensions the reemergence of a the Mongol threat unifies the Polish Kingdom. Zemaitija sends its forces south to bolster the King’s forces.

• The Polish coalition is brutally defeated in the key battle in Korosten.

• As the Polish forces rout, the Mongols are free to pillage the border, and fear once again strikes the eastern kingdoms. Large amount of peasants move west in an effort to avoid the onslaught.

• The Polish counterattack the main Mongol host at Kholm, where the Mongol horsemen take advantage of the flatland to utterly defeat Polish forces.

• By 1290 the leader of Athens has rapidly expanded in the former territories of the Ilkhanate and fashions himself Pankratios Melissenos the Despot of Hellados.

• Despite various losses in 1295 the Polish forces miraculously capture the Khagan in a battle against the Altin Ord, after which a peace treaty is hastily signed ceasing hostilities.

• Eastern Europe is reminded of the fragility of their rule.