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And so, the UK, enjoying pain, once again asks the Chinese to help them with their fetish. After all, now that China has a navy, it would be all the MORE painful.
So far the Manchus and the rest of the government seem to not be expansionist and wrapped up in their own bubble, only attacking strategically important areas that needed to be controlled before a foreigner could take control (Tibet with Britain and Kokand with Russia). But with the ongoing modernization, and depending on how Japan acts in the future, perhaps that will change.
Exactly what the Manchus must have been thinking.
That does seem to be true, this makes it their fifth attempt.
Quite.
It's an interesting late 19th century isn't it? Germany as a stable presence in the world, France very quiet, the US an expansionist imperial power (okay, that ones still the same), Russia being blocked not just by the Japanese but by China as well, China and Japan both serving as worryingly advancing nations in the Pacific and the British as ridcuilosuly bloodthirsty land conquerors desperate to destroy China, having taken over most other places.
The First World War is going to be odd, especially with the us allied to Germany?
The First World War is going to be odd, especially with the us allied to Germany?
That sounds like it would be difficult given the Chinese army's state, although there might be a chance if one was to recruit all nearly 800 available brigades, and then call up more from conscription post-westernization.
It is. Though I should note, France recently tried invade and take another chunk of Spain (and failed), which was defended by Austria. Japan is in Russia's sphere of influence, along with Korea. Other than that you accurately summarized it.
Yes, unfortunately.
The Fifth Anglo-Chinese War (1891—1892)
The Qing Emperor was tired and annoyed at this development. He was far from alone among the nobles of the Manchu Court in this “here we go again” feeling. The last time that Britain fought against China in 1870, more than two decades ago now, it had been thoroughly defeated in an uninterrupted string of Chinese successes. That conflict, if perhaps not welcomed initially, had at least given a major boost to China’s prestige in the eyes of the barbarian world. The Son of Heaven saw no need to repeat this play that had already been done so much and served its purpose, but if British wanted to be humbled by China’s might for a fifth time, he would oblige.
It was on this note that the Chinese government began deploying the imperial army to meet this threat in the second half of January 1891. The mountains of Tibet, which the Emperor thought must be now infamous to British soldiers, would become a battleground once again. It was noted in the imperial capital that Afghanistan and Gwailor, the only real allies of China right now, were remaining out of the war as they were both regarded as being under heavy British influence. So much for alliances.
As the army prepared to meet the enemy on the field, the navy made a request to demonstrate the Emperor’s might to the British at sea. It was decided that the Beiyang Fleet would sortie, and if need be, receive support from the other yet undeveloped fleets. The new vessels were still months away from completion but may not be necessary. The Emperor and the Admiralty Board did not hold any illusions about defeating the British at sea, but wanted to at least test their forces in combat, perhaps strike an early victory. At any rate, the Beiyang Squadron left its home base at Weihaiwei and began steaming south to Hong Kong on January 16.
The first shots were fired on January 29. A British force of 45,000 troops attacked a garrison of 21,000 in Shigatse. The southern provinces of Tibet and Xinjiang were besieged in the final days of the month and early February, and a British force attacked a small unit of 9,000 Tibetan cavalry at Changtang on the 11th. The commanders cabled back to Peking that the British were attacking quickly in overwhelming numbers, while the imperial army was taking time to mobilize.
On March 6, news arrived by telegraph that the Tibetan cavalry had been defeated at Changtang in the face of overwhelming British numbers. The heroic stand that the numerically inferior Gansu Braves had made at Changtang back in 1869 was remembered but not expected in this situation.
In western China, news was arriving that the British had over 100,000 troops pouring over the lightly defended border and entering western Tibet and the southern Xinjiang deserts. It was hoped that the fortresses and difficult terrain would slow down their advance and weaken their force to some extent, while the Chinese army prepared for a counteroffensive.
The battles of Shigatse and Lhodrak raged on throughout March and April, with Chinese reinforcements arriving and finally backing up the defenders, preventing an early British victory. Both sides continued to send in reinforcements, with the Qing being hampered by the great distances of the country (again reminding the Emperor to build railroads in that part of the empire as soon as the war ended).
To back up the troops another 39 brigades of infantry were prepared to be mobilized on April 12. Starting on the 16th, the first new ships for the fleet started to be launched, but strangely the Royal Navy was not making any attempt to blockade the Chinese coastline.
On April 8, the battle of Aksu began as the advancing British were met by the combined Chinese armies of the northwestern part of the empire. In mid-May the British made a bold landing on Formosa, although the island was defended by over 70,000 Chinese troops. As the 42,000 barbarians fought over the island against the Chinese defenders, the Beiyang Fleet was cabled in nearby Hong Kong and sortied against the lightly escorted British transport squadron.
More disturbing news reached Peking on May 20: An additional 56,000 British troops arrived at Lhodrak and the battle began tipping in their favor. The Board of War Operations quickly ordered reinforcements to be sent there. Some good news finally came on the 25th when the barbarians had decided to retreat from Shigatse in defeat after losing nearly 16,000 troops.
In late May the Beiyang Fleet engaged a fleet of fourteen British transports near Formosa while Changtang fell to barbarian occupation. Perhaps the British admirals had become so used to ignoring Chinese naval forces or had a lack of intelligence about China's recent naval build up that they did not expect serious resistance.
On June 10, Shigatse came under attack again from another British force. Breech-loaded rifles research was finished around that time though, and would help the war effort. In July, the Russians declared war on the Ottoman Empire, but unfortunately the Emperor was informed that the British did not honor their alliance with the latter. He hoped it would split their attention.
The exhausted defenders of Changtang did not prevail against another British force, and on July 19 the imperial capital received word of their defeat.
Though on the 22nd the Battle of Luzon Strait ended with a Chinese victory. Admiral Ma Xiangying had sunk only two British transports during the engagement, a disappointing result considering the presence of 45 commerce raiders and said something about the accuracy of Chinese gunners, but at least still a victory over the British Royal Navy.
In early August, not long after the Beiyang Fleet chased off the Royal Navy transport squadron, the news of a victory on Formosa reached Peking, the barbarian attackers being repelled and completely annihilated on the coast of the island. Some 15,622 British troops were killed while the rest of the original 42,000-man army surrendered. In exchange, about 32,000 Chinese troops had perished in the fighting. This gallant defense, with initially the British making progress against the defenders, did not have much effect on the overall war effort right away.
However, on August 10, the French minister in Peking informed the Emperor that France would intervene in the war on his side (the Son of Heaven was sure that hearing stories of the brave stand of Chinese troops in the face of the barbarian hordes inspired awe in the masses of Europe and elsewhere).
What did surprise the Emperor was that this intervention by France came just days after the country declared war on the Ottomans over the African region of Tripoli. At any rate, the Qing were welcoming the help of France in a war that so far was not going particularly well, although was not particularly a disaster either.
More welcome news came when China’s former “sphere leader” the United States also intervened, nine days after France. The Manchu Court was glad to see that the insolence and arrogance of the British barbarians was not going unnoticed, and that that strategy of playing barbarians against other barbarians seemed to be at play here.
The front was not looking to well, according to the Board of War Operations. The British had definitely brought in more troops than the previous invasion attempt and had begun entering the core of western China. Large numbers of Chinese troops were still tied down in Tibet and unable to respond. On the other hand, in the eastern part of China, recruitment was finished and the newly raised regiments were being organized into field armies. News arrived in Peking around this time that France and Britain were both mobilizing their armies.
Good news arrived not long afterwards, though. On September 2, the Battle of Aksu finally ended, with more than 48,000 General Winston Jellicoe’s British troops perishing in those mountains in exchange for 18,000 Chinese—in spite of no prominent Chinese general being present to command those defenders. In any case, it was a major victory for China and also greatly boosted the empire’s prestige at the expense of the barbarian invaders. On the 12th, a Chinese army that was ordered to go on the offensive by cutting through Burmese territory engaged the enemy at Tawang, the southernmost part of Tibet.
On September 19, finally, months after beginning, the Battle of Lhodrak came to an end as the British chose to pull out after nearly nine months of continuous combat and 79,000 casualties. Chinese losses amounted to close to 100,000, which was why it was not considered as big of a success as Aksu, but at least now a large number of regiments were freed up to go assist other units. It also brought the empire more prestige. In total, some 219,000 Chinese troops had fought in the battle, against about 155,000 British, making it one of the largest engagements that the Chinese army has taken part in in recent history. As a precaution, on the 26th, the Emperor ordered armies from Manchuria and the northern provinces to begin marching south to the front.
By December, the barbarians had brought in more reinforcements and continued their offensives. It was clear that the British prepared much better than the last time.
The front remained largely static throughout the early weeks of the new year of 1892, with a victory in the deserts of Lop Nur on February 19. It was a victory over a small force and the Emperor found it concerning that they took so long to defeat such an enemy. However, it should be noted that the general commanding the barbarian forces on this occasion, according to the secret police, was a British royal—General Prince Alfred. The fact that a member of their royal house took part in a losing battle must be a major blow to Britain's prestige.
The second British attack on Lhodrak was fought off on March 5, a minor victory for the most part, with slightly higher Chinese losses than British. The battle dragged on for longer than expected regardless of the fact that the barbarian army there was not led by any prominent general, something that the Emperor found concerning about the ability of his imperial forces.
General Changlin Linge’s forces prevailed at Kegudo on the 23rd of that month after several months of battle over the province. Although Chinese casualties significantly outnumbered the enemy’s, the British losses were also great. The Manchu Court wondered how the British could afford to continue bleeding away such large numbers of troops and still keep attacking.
On April 5, the Emperor's own Mongol cavalry under Guan Kang’an, having proved its loyalty and effectiveness at critical moments in the past, defeated a small British unit at Urumqi.
Days later on April 7, 1892, Britain accepted a white peace offer from France, much to the Manchu Court’s delight as China had found itself an increasingly difficult war against the British. Partly thanks to this foreign assistance, the dynasty had humbled the barbarians once again, proving Confucianism’s superiority and China as the center of the universe, according to the Manchu nobles. Among all of this, the Emperor could not help but continue to wonder why the British barbarians would expend so much money and lives over a desolate wasteland in a remote corner of China.
Wait, not only did the UK invade China but did they ignore a call to help their ally the Ottoman Empire in a war with Russia? And then France and the USA joined against them? The UK must hurting on the political stage after all that.
A bloody war for little gain indeed, the international response shows just how low Britain's global standing must be. Maybe this particular experience will wake London up to the error of her ways?
Or maybe not.
Or maybe not.
Indeed.
Maybe it bloodied their nose enough this time to learn a lesson.
Looks like they will not so far, though they did manage to restrain themselves for over two decades.
Let's hope.
Into the New Century (1892—1904)
With the victory in the fifth British war in the spring of 1892, the Qing Emperor once again turned his attention back to domestic affairs. The war had greatly enhanced his dynasty’s prestige (going from 81 before the war to 106) but several deficiencies in the Chinese forces had clearly been noted. The Emperor immediately ordered the construction of railways to link the far west and Tibet with the Chinese heartland for faster transportation of troops, and an increase in the size of the imperial army. When in October research into the rights of man was finished, he ordered research into iron-muzzle loaded artillery.
While the great powers were busy with another round of dividing up the “Sick Man of Europe” throughout the fall of 1892, the Qing focused on reorganizing the military and recruiting more troops. On November 26 an imperial edict called for the mobilization of 102 new regiments.
By January 1893 the Emperor was beginning to consider options of military expansionism throughout Asia. Although his dynasty’s territory was already enormous, military adventures could unite the empire behind him and further impress the barbarian powers of Europe. The humbling of Britain for the fifth time was a great accomplishment but the intervention of France and America had diminished the victory somewhat, and the fact that the Chinese war effort was struggling to hold the line before their intervening also diminished China’s image. He began considering multiple options.
When in April the Qing Foreign Office reported that the Ottomans gave up several territories to the Russians it reminded the Manchu Court just how close they came to losing more territories at the hands of the Europeans. The Emperor’s resolve to show to the world the power of China by seizing land increased throughout spring. In August they learned that the French had done the same to the Ottomans. Later that month the imperialism continued as the US declared war on Mexico (again).
However the military was not ready, still recuperating from the conflict, and the government was focusing on other projects throughout 1893. But the Emperor took note that the barbarian powers displayed their superiority and glory by conquering smaller nations. It has been quite a long time since the Chinese conquest of Tibet, and so it was time for his dynasty to do the same.
By the fall of 1894, some of the railroads in the west and south were beginning to be complete, allowing for faster transportation of troops to the frontier.
The Emperor finally made up his mind as the ongoing military reforms were nearing completion. On December 11, 1894, China declared war on Brunei. The target was chosen based on the recent discovery of oil deposits there, which he believed would be of great benefit to China. It would also serve as an outpost for further expansion to the south. Johore and Bali, the country’s only allies, both unsurprisingly refused to come to the beleaguered sultanate’s assistance.
Thus the new year of 1895 would be marked with China’s debut on the world stage.
For this occasion the Guangdong Fleet and Fujian Fleet were both deployed to the coast of Brunei to blockade it. The Transport Squadron landed 30,000 troops near the capital city on January 19, 1895, though surprisingly the 3,000 poorly equipped troops of the Sultan’s Guard put up a fierce fight for a week against numerically superior units. They were under the personal command of Muabidin Riayat Shah and were defending their capital, so their determination must have been high. The final victory was not achieved until January 31 and Chinese casualties were lighter than the enemy's.
With the defeat of the Sultan of Brunei’s army, the Chinese forces began occupying the capital and the rest of the country. On February 1 orders were given to split up the attacking 44th Army into three forces to occupy more regions, which promptly covered the entire region. It would take time to pacify the jungles and mountains of the sultanate, though.
On May 8, research was finished into iron-muzzle loaded artillery and the Emperor began to research medicine in order to improve the army’s capabilities.
The occupation of Brunei’s capital was finished on the 16th, at which point the army advanced to the last region that was still unoccupied. Brunei capitulated and became the dynasty’s newest province on October 18.
Chinese emigration to Brunei began almost immediately, with the capital having 57% of its population being ethnically Han Chinese by the end of October, according to the local military commandant.
The invasion did have the effect of increasing China’s prestige, but also gained infamy in the eyes of the world for this unprovoked attack. Nonetheless the Emperor believed that the country made its point clear, that China was not to be underestimated and that it considered itself to be among the great powers. In December of 1895, the UK even requested military access from China, which he decided to grant out of diplomatic reasons, even though this was unpopular with the Manchu Court.
By early 1896, word was reaching Peking from the border regions in the south that it seemed a rebel faction had taken control of large parts of Dai Nam. Since China no longer had any alliance with the Royal Faction of Dai Nam, the Emperor could not do much but wait to see the result of the rebellion. It was possible that the new government would be more compliant to China than the previous one had been. In late September, the Manchu Court learned that the Royal Faction was on the verge of being overthrown by Anarcho-Liberals and Jacobins as Hanoi fell to the rebels—foreign, barbarian ideologies.
The Qing Emperor ultimately decided that he could not allow a historically closely allied dynasty to China be overthrown, as it would set a bad precedent for the rebels in his own empire and would disrupt the Confucian order of East Asia. On September 27, the exiled Dai Nam royals granted China military access to their territory after negotiations with the Chinese government, which they did not fully trust and initially denied access to, at which point Chinese troops in the south of the empire marched on Hanoi. The Guangdong Fleet blockaded the Gulf of Tonkin as the 10th Army and 14th Army made their way south.
The only interruption came on October 5, as the international community became embroiled in a war between Austria-Hungary and the North German Federation. The Germans were betrayed by the U.S. and most other allies except for Baden and Württemberg, while the other great powers of Europe sided with the Austrians. Although the Manchu Court generally made it a rule to not get too involved in barbarian affairs, the Emperor decided to grant the German government extensive economic assistance in return for their previous good relations. He believed this was a sign that China was capable of dealing with the European powers on an equal, if not higher level.
On October 16, the 10th Army made contact with the Vietnamese “Citizen Guards” under General Bui An Than, near the Chinese border. Breaking through their lines in late October, they continued onwards to Hanoi, where the retreating rebels made a last stand on November 1. Having fought them off as well, the Chinese 10th and 14th armies began liberating the Vietnamese capital from the hands of the rebels.
On November 24, the Chinese 25th Army entered Hai Phong and engaged several rebel armies there, successfully eliminating them, while the 10th Army went on the offensive in the western direction towards the mountains of Son La—in an attempt to cut off the rebels from the Chinese border and potentially threatening Manchu territory.
The Chinese 8th Army and 12th Army entered northern Dai Nam on January 4, clearing out the last of the bandit groups in the north. On the 14th of that month news arrived in Peking that Hanoi had been retaken from rebel hands, with the Dai Nam royals returning to their capital in triumph. Considering that the Vietnamese government no longer had any loyalist troops it could rely on and most of the country was still under rebel control, the Emperor promised his allies that China would fully liberate the country for them.
An overthrow of a neighboring dynasty was prevented, with Chinese troops in Dai Nam continuing to mop up remaining rebels with allied Cambodian forces through the spring.
In June 1897, the Qing learned that the Americans managed to remove nearby Japan from the sphere of influence of the Russians. This was seen as a good thing, as the Manchu Court had been disturbed by the Russian encirclement of China from the north. Korea still remained under their sway, unfortunately. In early July, the European war ended and Chines payments to the Germans stopped as the British accepted white peace from the Federation following the battlefield failures of the Austro-Hungarians. By August the Qing forces in Dai Nam, together with Cambodian allies, succeeded in liberating the last of the rebel-held provinces and returned to the homeland.
In September the Emperor placed orders for the Chinese navy to be expanded with more commerce raiders, and with the completion of the research into medicine the supply capacity in Chinese provinces was greatly expanded, allowing more army regiments to be raised.
Another major disruption came in Europe on September 20, when the Emperor was informed by foreign diplomats that a war between France and Spain once again plunged Europe into conflict after barely three months of peace. In this case China would remain neutral but the Emperor kept track of the progress of the war as he eyed the Spanish Philippines.
In December an additional 74 regiments were called up for service in the imperial army. Throughout 1898 the recruitment continued, and during the summer of that year there were recorded to be enough volunteers to call up more than one thousand regiments in total (lacking army logistics, records keeping in the imperial army was still relatively poor). The naval expansion also continued and by August 1898, China had nearly one hundred vessels in its fleet.
The Emperor continued carrying out the military buildup throughout 1899 as the French-Spanish War raged on in Europe, wondering whether or not he would have the opportunity to declare war on Spain and take the Philippines. The Spaniards were allied with China’s main nemesis, the British, but if the French succeeded adding Spain to their sphere, Spain’s alliance with Britain would probably end. In that case there may be a window of opportunity, as France would most likely not be able to deploy significant ground forces to Asia in order to assist Spain.
At least, that was the Emperor’s analysis based on the French intervention in the war between China and Britain, which France mostly fought in Europe. The Spanish forces were of little concern, which as China understood it was a decrepit and collapsing empire, but the French Navy did potentially pose a major hazard that would have to be overcome.
In August 1899 a single cavalry regiment of Mongols rose up in rebellion, members of the Mongolian nationalists. The rest of the Army of the Steppe quickly annihilated the rebels.
The rest of the year was uneventful except for the Emperor ordering more regiments to be mobilized for the army in December.
In January the Foreign Office reported that many of France’s allies dropped out of the war against Britain, leaving only Belgium and Sardinia-Piedmont to assist the French, but they, too, ended their involvement in the war in early February.
On January 19, the imperial capital was disturbed by the news that a military arsenal had been looted by local rebels in Fuzhou. The missing equipment had to be replaced, but it was a sign of discontentment in the dynasty and the possibility of further rebellions. The failed Communist revolution of 1886 was still fresh on the Emperor’s mind, as well as the much more recent Mongolian nationalist uprising last year.
In February, the Emperor learned that the USA again declared war on Mexico.
The spring of 1900 was mostly spent building up the military as the new regiments were formed and assigned to field armies. The Qing Foreign Office noted that France accepted an offer of white peace from Britain in May, ending the war that shook Europe and resulted in thousands of deaths, for nothing. The Emperor ultimately decided against attacking Spain as it remained allied to Britain.
Interestingly, it seemed France was unaffected by the war as they intervened in an attempt by the Two Sicilies to gain a colony in Egypt.
By the beginning of 1901, the Emperor was beginning to take into consideration the possibility of further expanding China’s potential using Western technology. Although it was certainly not to suggest that the traditional order was inadequate, but to adjust it to reflect the changing times. In March, China had taken a step in that direction further by obtaining ironclad technology for its navy. However, he did not tell anyone at court about this idea.
The rest of 1901, and most of 1902 occurred uneventfully, with the first major disruption coming when Austria-Hungary declared war on the North German Federation again in July over Moravia. In spite of their war against their northern brethren, the Austro-Hungarians honored an alliance with the Ottoman Empire in September when Russia declared war on the Turks. China once again offered financial assistance to the North German Federation and its allies, Baden and Württemberg.
On October 1, 1902, China gained the capability to build monitors, which the Emperor immediately ordered several of from the shipyards. On September 1, 1903, the capability to build full ironclads was gained, and several were also ordered.
That same month the first monitors were completed and entered the Beiyang Fleet, another step forward for the Chinese navy.
In November the war between the North German Federation and Austria-Hungary ended with a white peace.
The year 1904 saw the completion of new railways that linked the imperial capital with Manchuria and the Korean border. The first ironclads were commissioned into the navy in July, becoming the pride of the Chinese fleet.
With Russia seeming to be losing to the Austro-Hungarians and the Ottomans since the peace with North German Federation, the Emperor and the Manchu Court considered the possibility of also declaring war and reclaiming the rightful Manchu homeland. According to Chinese sources, the Russians have already lost close to 100 regiments since the start of their war, and most of the frontier guards in Siberia and the Far East have been sent to the European front. The possibility of retaking the ancestral lands of the Qing—which had been demanded by Russia at the Peking Convention in 1843 and later ceded following a war—was too great to resist for most of the Manchu Court, and as Russia faced continued battlefield reversals against Austria-Hungary in Europe and the Ottoman Empire in the Caucasus, the Chinese war party was calling for an immediate liberation of Manchuria.
The Emperor himself was not immune to the desire of liberating Chinese territory, being a Manchu himself. He convened his advisors, and after deliberations it was agreed upon that this was the opportunity of the century, which China had to take.
On August 11, 1904, China declared war on the Russian Empire.
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Sounds like an excellent opportunity to signal China is alive and kicking. Nice though the conquest of Brunei and pacification of Dai Nam are, neither will be like socking Russia.