History Lesson 7: Kofi Annan
Yes. Yes it did. The DPO absolutely failed on multiple fronts in the '90s. A general unwillingness to "get their hands dirty" paralyzed Peacekeepers in Rwanda, Yugoslavia and Angola. The rules of engagement were so restrictive that whenever UNAMIR forces in Rwanda asked permission to help out the victims of genocide, UN leaders in New York responded by saying something akin to "You are clearly out of control. We need to put you on a tighter leash." Something similar happened to my dad when he was with the UNPROFOR. (Bosnian War, 1993)I presume this also happened in real life.
Everyone who could have saved lives had their hands tied. Anyone who wanted to intervene was told they were in the wrong. Leadership of the DPO in the '90's was just plain bad.
The 1996 Selection of the UN Secretary-General
The Administration of Boutros Boutros-Ghali was highly controversial, yet it laid much of the groundwork for the present-day Etienne Administration.
Shortly after the beginning of his tenure, Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali wrote and published An Agenda for Peace, a document that laid out a detailed plan for the UN to respond to violent conflict as well as prevent future civil strife. The document listed three goals:
First, for the UN to be more heavily engaged in "the enforcement of peace." Specifically, he argued that Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter allowed the Security Council to use military force against another country without the consent of any of the involved parties. This would eventually come to pass in 2036 when Secretary-General Laura Harper authorized the Reclamation Agency to perform law enforcement activities in UN member-states without the consent of said member-states.
Second, the UN must carry out “preventative diplomacy” to avert wars and crises before they arise. The preventative doctrine would allow the Security Council to take much more aggressive and forceful actions against a nation or group they believe to be "preparing to engage in hostilities."
Finally, Boutros-Ghali called out for the UN to expand its role as Global Peacekeeper. In his view, UN Peacekeepers should remain in a country for a very long time after a conflict has ended, taking whatever actions are needed to prevent a relapse into future war. This would also come to pass in the days of Secretary-General Harper.
As if the Universe itself responded to his challenge, the UN became embroiled in several civil conflicts that put Boutros-Ghali's peacekeeping commitment to the ultimate test.
When the African nation of Rwanda descended into a genocidal civil war, Boutros-Ghali was harshly criticized for the catastrophic failure of UN Peacekeeping mission. The UN Aid Mission in Rwanda (UNAMIR) took no action to save lives once the fighting started, and when their soldiers were directly attacked by the belligerent forces, Belgian Peacekeepers were ordered to surrender their weapons and abandon the civilians they were attempting to protect. UNAMIR withdrew from Rwanda entirely after a few days and the conflict continued without any further intervention from the United Nations. Ultimately, the Rwandan Civil War left over a million innocent people dead.
Only a short time later, the Second UN mission to Somalia (UNOSOM 2) met with disaster. A mixed force of American soldiers and UN Peacekeepers fought side-by-side in the disastrous Battle of Mogadishu. Also known as the "Black Hawk Down Incident," this battle was a pyrrhic victory over the Somali National Alliance. 19 Americans, 1 Malaysian, and 1 Pakistani lost their lives in the conflict, and the United States was awash in outrage. Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali became a public scapegoat for the repeated failures of UN Peacekeeping missions around the world.
A couple of years after this, UN Peacekeepers were deployed to conflicts in Yugoslavia, a European nation that was rapidly breaking up along ethic and religious lines. Another Peacekeeping mission was deployed, the UN Protection Force. (UNPROFOR) Several "UN Safe Areas" were declared around the conflict zone, and these Humanitarian corridors were deemed to be under the protection of UNPROFOR. However, all of the Safe Areas were attacked the Bosnian Serb Army, and ultimately two of them fell to the attackers, resulting in the Srebrenica Massacre (July 11-22, 1995) where 8,372 Bosniak men and boys were murdered by Bosnian Serbs. (1) The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina deteriorated so badly that the NATO alliance staged an armed intervention, launching an intense bombing campaign against the Bosnian Serb Army. Again, Boutros-Ghali took the brunt of the blame for the collapse of UN Peacekeepers in the face of organized attack by a well-armed foe.
By the end of 1995, the effectiveness of UN Peacekeepers was being called into question all over the world.
Despite all of this, Boutros-Ghali ran for a second term completely unopposed in 1996. When the Security Council gathered on November 19th, he easily won a second term on the first ballot, scoring fourteen out of fifteen votes. Unfortunately, the lone negative vote turned out to be a veto from the United States. This move was incredibly unpopular and made most of the world very angry. Some diplomats referred to the US veto as a “mugging” while America’s closest ally, the United Kingdom, used stronger language. British diplomats described the American leaders as “…Xenophobic, extremely touchy, and ignorant.”
Supporters of Boutros-Ghali flocked to China, hoping the rapidly industrializing nation would engage the US in a 1950-style veto duel. This did not happen. US Ambassador Madeline Albright gathered several diplomats to her side in a plot called "Operation Orient Express," which aimed to recruit as many nations as possible to the attempted overthrow of Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali. When no one proved willing to support America, Ambassador Albright threatened to rotate the Secretary-General post away from Africa, denying the region a second term in the office. When this also failed, Abright went directly to Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali and demanded his resignation. Unverified reports suggest US President George H. W. Bush and his staff were "in a frenzy" over the Sec-Gen's refusal to step down.
The feud between the United States and Boutros-Ghali escalated. In November, the Security Council held an official vote to give Boutros-Ghali a second term as Secretary-General. The final vote was 14 in favor and 1 against, with the lone vote being a US veto. In a speech to the body, Boutros-Ghali remined the United States that he was not "Noriega or Saddam Hussain" and compared America to the Roman Empire. The "mugging" accusations grew louder around the world as more and more nations criticized America for its actions. Even American politicians who disliked the UN accused George H. W. Bush of "indulging in an obsession."
By the end of November, the Security Council was deadlocked. The US was continuing to veto Boutros-Ghali, and at the same time, it was refusing to nominate a candidate of its own. As the standoff continued, there was talk of allowing Boutros-Ghali to stay in office after his term expired. The Organization of African Unity quietly tried to find another African to run for Sec-Gen, but no one volunteered, choosing instead to support the Secretary-General.
The deadlock finally broke on December 5th 1996, when Boutros-Ghali abruptly suspended his candidacy and announced his intention to leave office when his term expired.
Four Africans were nominated:
- Amara Essy from the Ivory Coast
- Hamid Algabid from Nigeria
- Ahmedou Olud-Abdallah from Mauritania
- Kofi Annan from Ghana
Across five rounds of straw polls, the contest was rather lopsided. Kofi Annan took off to an early lead, securing the majority of votes in all five straw polls. The only reason he did not become Secretary-General on the very first poll is because he was being continuously vetoed by France.
Born in 1938, Kofi Annan and his twin sister Efua were born into one of the aristocratic families of Ghana. He studied economics in college before completing his undergraduate degree in economics at Malcaster College in St. Paul, Minnesota. Annan was multi-lingual, able to speak English, French, and several African languages and dialects.
Annan joined the World Health Organization as a budget officer before moving up the ranks to join the UN High Commission on Refugees. During the administration of Secretary-General Boutros-Ghali, Annan worked in the Department of Peacekeeping Operations. On one occasion during the Yugoslav Wars, Annan violated the chain of command, circumventing the Secretary-General and allowing NATO warplanes to carry out strikes related to Operation Deliberate Force, the NATO intervention in said war. This action made him a favorite of most American diplomats. (2)
During the fifth round of voting, France abruptly dropped its veto against Annan and chose to abstain. Before a sixth round could occur, the Security Council passed a resolution recommending Annan to the General Assembly, who quickly elected him Secretary-General. Kofi Annan became the seventh Secretary-General of the UN on January 1st 1997.
Footnotes:
1: Srebrenica Massacre- This is a real historical event. Most of my information about the Yugoslav Wars comes from my own dad, who participated in the conflict as a United States soldier (Macedonia) later as a UN Peacekeeper (Bosnia) and as a US soldier again after the Dayton Accords. (Operation Joint Endeavour)
2: Yes, Kofi Annan did this. Here's the book: To End a War: The Conflict in Yugoslavia--America's Inside Story--Negotiating with Milosevic by Richard Holbrooke
EDIT: Corrected a continuity error. In the Stormbreaker Universe, the US President at this time was George H. W. Bush, not Bill Clinton.
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