Urbi et Orbi - A Rome AAR

[Stuckenschmidt]

50 - The Second Antigonid War (225 - 224)

While the Republic was performing its Operations in Illyria, the Antigonid Kingdom had begun a war with the Kingdom of Pontos, that controlled the north of today`s Turkey along the coast of the Black Sea. By early 225, Pontos had sued for peace and ceded most of its territories to the Antigonids, vastly expanding their influence in the region.

After the Island Campaign, that completed Rome`s dominance over the Adriatic Sea, the Republic shifted its focus back on the south again. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was still in control over most of Thessaly, while the Antigonid Kingdom did not only possess Macedonia and Thracia, but also small holdings in Thessaly and the southern part of the island of Euboea. This made the Greek holdings of the Republic vulnerable from two sides and Rome was determined to solve this situation.

Greece before the Second Antigonid War in 225​

The Republic began the Second Antigonid War in mid 225. The focus of Operations was on Thessaly and Euboea, where the Roman main force started a two-pronged attack. It was the smaller force heading into Thessaly, that encountered the only field battle of the war near Pharsalos, where an Antigonid army of estimated seven thousand soldiers was defeated and forced to retreat northward.

Two months later, in September, another battle allegedly took place. According to Polybios a mercenary force of eight thousand men faced the Roman main force. While the Mercenaries were slain to the last man, the Romans suffered no casualties at all. Polybios writes a rather convoluted, but also amusing paragraph about how the Romans were not only brave on the battlefield, but also had Fortune on their side and how more things may happen on the battlefield than any human may imagine. Nowadays it is believed, that no battle took place and that, if a Mercenary force did exist, it simply disbanded when faced with a way larger Roman army.

Besides that, the cities of Larissa and Eretria both surrendered in January 224 and the last organized Antigonid force was defeated in the south of Euboea in February. The alleged main goals of that Campaign had thus been achieved.

In the North, the Republic had deployed an Army of roughly fifteen thousand Soldiers. At first, its only objective was to capture the border city of Stoboi, which was achieved by November 225. At the end of winter the army advanced further into Paeonia and occupied the province during spring 224 without facing resistance.

This successful land campaign was complemented by the first large-scale naval campaign in Roman history. The Republic had learned from past mistakes and appointed Chelbes Adonibaal as Fleet Commander. Hailing from a family of Carthaginian descent from Lilybaeum, he had signed up for service within the Republic. Little is known about his early life, besides hints towards a long career at sea.

Expecting Antigonid reinforcements from the sea, he positioned his fleet close to the island of Skiros. Indeed an enemy fleet arrived, but tried to escape across the Aegean Sea. Close to Lesbos, the two fleets clashed. Chelbes, commanding the larger force, was able to sink or capture roughly thirty Antigonid vessels, before the enemy was able to escape. With this victory, the sea was now controlled by the Romans and no further attempt to challenge their supremacy is recorded.

Being defeated both at land and sea, the Antigonids agreed to a peace treaty in mid 224, that would hand over Thessaly, Euboea and Paeonia to the Republic.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

51 - Cornelian Dialogue (224 - 223)

In 314, Antigonos Monophthalmos founded the Nesiotic League, a union between several city states comprising the islands known as Cyclades. The League was formed to maintain the independence of the islands from Egypt influence as well as bringing them in line with Antigonid politics. Nevertheless the Ptolemaic Kingdom gained control of the League in the 280s for roughly three decades, when Egyptian influence began to fade in the southern Aegean Sea.

In 250, the western islands of the Cyclades revolted against the central authority, which had its seat on the island of Delos. This partition was successful also due to the reinforcements the dissenters received from the mainland. In 248, in the aftermath of the collapse of Epirus, a small Epirote force that had fled the Roman conquest, appeared and supported the Rebels. As a result, the western League gained its independence and the Epirote soldiers the control over the island of Kea.

With the Roman conquest of the Peloponnese in the early 230s, the Cyclades were in reach of Roman ambitions, although their Campaigns in Thessaly and Illyria would shift their focus away from the Aegean. But in 224, Publius Cornelius, Tribune of the First Legion, appeared in Melos in order to demand the western League to fall in line with the Republic.

The Romans had an interest in the Cyclades for the same reason as the Athenians during the Peloponnese War prior to the Sicilian Expedition. The islands controlled the eastern approach to the Saronic Gulf and thus Athens. Publius` mission was to give the League the chance to submit to Rome`s will. Polybios, familiar with the writings of Thucydides, probably realized the irony of the situation and how history repeated itself. Hence he wrote the so-called "Cornelian Dialogue".

The scene takes place in a tent outside the city of Melos. Participants are Publius Cornelius and Philippos Agesipolid, Archon of the western League. Similar to Thucydides` Melian Dialogue, the content of the Dialogue is probably fictitious and rather depicts the two different positions in general. While Philippos insists on laws, independence and moral values, Publius arguments circle around Rome`s expansion, interests and military power. At one point, Publius offers freedom within the Roman laws. Philippos counters with the question, how freedom can exist, if one is subject to laws that one did not make oneself.

Nothing is known about the real course of the negotiations, that actually took place. But in fact Publius did not achieve to make the League join the Republic. So, in a Campaign that lasted from roughly August 224 to April 223, the chain of islands from Kea in the north to Melos in the south got conquered by the Republic.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

Sometimes I don`t know what the AI is doing.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

52 - The Dardanian-Sardinian War (222 - 221)

After having secured the shipping lines in the southern Aegean Sea, the Republic turned its attention northward again toward the realm of the Dardani. The Dardani appeared in historical records as of the 4th Century, although their settlement history in the region predates this for Centuries. Eventually they formed a Kingdom north of Macedonia, sometimes under control and sometimes at war with its southern neighbor, with the city of Skoupoi (today: Skopje) as capital.

Dardania in 222​

Rome started the war in spring 222 with the immediate advance on Skoupoi, which had to surrender in September. Although the war was decided, there are reports about minor skirmishes and one battle versus probably an army of the Scordisci at a place called Malvesia. Archaeologists have not been able to locate that place yet, but most suggest a location along the Drina river.

In early 221 hostilities came to an end in the east, with the Republic annexing the Dardanian Kingdom, but operations did not continue in Greece for the rest of the year, for Rome had to distribute ressources to the west.

Our only source for what was happening in the meantime between Sardinia and the African coast is Cassius Dio. According to him, Carthage had declared war at the same time as Roman forces entered the Kingdom of Dardania. Allegedly they had the intent to take southern Sardinia back.

According to Cassius Dio, the Roman fleet and an army of eight thousand soldiers were diverted to Sardinia without facing any Carthaginian opposition. Eventually the fleet sailed south to raid coastal settlements west and east of Carthage. Finally the actions died down completely and the two powers signed a peace in late 221.

Historians still debate, whether the Sardinian Campaign really happened, considering that nothing of consequence seemed to have happened. Some argue, that the Carthaginians actually wanted to retake Sardinia, but where surprised by the swift Roman deployment of troops. Others argue, that Cassius Dio introduced such an event to develop a general narrative of Carthaginians being a unreliable and devious people.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

53 - Developments in the Republic (241 - 221)

In the third quarter of the 3rd Century, Rome still struggled with its new position as major power in the Mediterranean. With its expansion and subjugation of Illyria and large parts of Greece and Macedonia, the population of the Republic had increased to roughly five million. While the majority still lived in what is today Italy and the Hellenic religion remained a uniting factor, the amount of different people, customs and languages proved to be an increasing burden, since what one would call the Latin culture group amounted to maybe just half of the total population.

Greece proved to be the most difficult terrain in that regard. Contrary to Illyria, whose population was more easy to assimilate into the more developed Roman culture, Greece had its own high civilization, which was older and partially the precursor of the Roman one, and would not adopt the "Roman way" of life.

Hence the Republic invested into the local infrastructure and remained vital institutions such as the Olympic Games alive. On the other hand it tried to install Roman "cores" into Greek society, by encouraging Roman citizens to move to major Greek cities such as Athens and Corinth.

Meanwhile the Senate was torn in the question about how to deal with minorities. Eventually the progressive part of it deemed that, while full citizenship was out of the question, people without citizenship should have an improved legal status. When passed as Law, this situation caused so much unrest among the Traditionalists, especially the Castiliani family, that some modern historians deem this a foreshadowing of the loss of coherence within and loyalty to the Republic. But, for the time being, the Republican institutions held.

Further developments occurred within the military structure of the Republic. Continuous military operations far away from Rome as well as occasional Gaul raids in the north (as in 240 and 231) called for more standardized tactics and equipment. The Triplex Acies, the triple battle order consisting of Hastati, Principes and Triari, which is deemed the "classical" Roman battle order, got its final shape in the second half of the 3rd Century. Also Roman equipment such as the Pilum (a Javelin) as well as the Scutum (a Shield) now belonged to the standard items of a Legionary and got standardized in shape.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

54 - The Second Thessalian War (220 - 218)

Probably on the 10th February 221 Ptolemy III died in Alexandria at the age of 74 years. Modern archaeological and medical examinations conclude, that he had been an ill man who had suffered from severe arthritis and maybe even cancer. His son, the later Ptolemy IV, inherited a large Empire and the threat of getting dethroned by one of several pretenders.

At that time, the Republic was still occupied with its actions between Sardinia and the African coast. But although it had not its full military ressources available to exploit the situation, it is highly likely that the Republic sponsored the efforts of the pretenders to the Ptolemaic throne in order to keep this mighty eastern Realm occupied with domestic affairs.

In early 220, thirteen years after the first attempt to gain control over all of Thessaly, the Republic began the second War against the Ptolemaic Kingdom. During the rest of the year 220, Rome faced little opposition. Egypt had just a small detachment of maybe three thousand soldiers stationed, which were defeated in September. In November Thessaloniki, the only fortified Egyptian city in the region, had to surrender. The primary war goal, the occupation of all Egyptian territories, was thus achieved.

In 219 the Republic turned the focus further south toward the city of Oreos, which was a client state of Egypt and controlled the northern part of Euboea. After a siege of a little more than half a year, the city had to surrender and Euboea was completely under Roman control. In the meantime, on 9th April 219, the battle of Psara had sealed the result of the War.

The Ptolemaic Kingdom had eventually spare ressources to send to the war theater. A fleet of roughly 120 ships transported a small army of allegedly six thousand soldiers. But near the island of Psara, close to Chios, it had to face a Roman fleet of 150 ships. After having lost several vessels, the Egyptian Commander decided to flee with the remnants into Ionian ports, where they were trapped and guarded by the Roman navy. The first and only attempt to turn the tide in Greece had failed.

Ptolemy IV still needed further months to come to terms with the fact, that a victory or even stalemate against the Republic was not an option anymore. In March 218 he agreed to a peace treaty, that would cede all his holdings on mainland Greece as well as the city of Oreos to Rome.

In the aftermath, the city of Pella, capital of the Macedonian Kingdom for roughly a Century, was occupied by the Romans. Publius Cornelius, who had served for many years in the Greek campaigns with the First Legion and had become a friend of Greek culture, was Second Consul during the war. As an admirer of Alexander the Great, he ordered that the city was to be spared from all looting. The population established a shrine and a local cult in honor of Cornelius and his family, that survived until 90 AD, when it was destroyed during an earthquake and not rebuild again.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

55 - The Third Anigonid War (218 - 217)

After the end of the Second Thessalian War, Rome controlled almost the entirety of mainland Greece with the exception of southern Macedonia and the Chalkidiki. After a short period of time, during which the Republic regrouped its forces, it began the Third Antigonid War in mid 218.

The Roman Campaign of 218 / 217 is often cited as a textbook example for efficient warfare. But there were three factors, from which the Republic did benefit and that contributed to the swift success.

The first is, that the Antigonid Kingdom, when Rome began the Campaign, was still occupied with military operations along the Danube, where the people of the Getae had tried to cross the river and occupy parts of the Kingdom. This attempt would soon fail, but in the early stage of the Campaign the Antigonids had no forces available to counter the Roman invasion.

Secondly the Theater of War itself favored the Republic. The eastern Chalkidiki is a narrow Theater, with the northern flank blocked by mountains and the southern flank protected by the superior Roman fleet. This enabled the Republic to concentrate its forces at any point. And while the Antigonid Navy would not have been able to threaten the Roman flank, the Legions would have been in the position to operate behind the Antigonid lines.

The third factor was, that the lack of any fortified positions in the region favored a fast advance and the occupation of large amounts of territories. The only factors that hindered Roman movements were the terrain on the Chalkidiki peninsula itself as well as the lack of roads and bridges when crossing the Strymon river.

Eventually, in early 217, the Antigonids were able to send an army of estimated thirteen thousand soldiers, that suffered a substantial defeat in the battle of Tragilos versus a numerically superior Roman force.

In August 217 the Republic and the Antigonid Kingdom signed a peace treaty, that defined the Nestos river as border between the two realms and that all territories to the west of it would become a part of the Republic.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

56 - End of the Greek Campaign (213 - 211)

In Rome, on the Forum, was the Temple of the two-faced God Janus. According to several contemporary sources, the gates to the Temple were opened during times of war and closed during times of peace. Although there are different accounts on why exactly this happened, there is enough evidence to conclude, that the gates stood open during almost the entirety of the history of the Republic. An exception to this rule, that gets mentioned by several authors such as Appian and Quintus Fabius Pictor, were the years of 216 to 214.

Modern historians come up with two major explanations for this rather unusual long period of peace in Rome`s expansionist history. One theory boils down to the notion, that Rome needed a break. After decades of constant warfare, the population felt war weariness and strived for an at least short period of peace and calm. Additionally it is argued, that the Republic needed time to organize its new provinces. And indeed there are reports about fortifications being disbanded and new ones constructed. Besides that the Republic invested in local infrastructure to promote economic stability and maybe also the integration of the new territories into the Republic.

The second theory is, that the Republic had to consider its options. After the Third Antigonid War, the Antigonid Kingdom had been pushed out of Macedonia. Since the Ptolemaic Kingdom had lost its holdings on the mainland, Greece and Macedonia were now almost entirely free of influence from the Successor States. The Republic had to decide, in which direction it would turn its focus for further expansions.

In the short run it decided to conclude its Greek Wars with a Campaign versus Andros. Andros controlled the islands of Tinos and Syros in the Cyclades and was the last Egyptian Vassal State on the western side of the Aegean Sea. In order to clean Greece of all Egyptian influence, it declared war on Argos.

Little is known about this Campaign, that lasted from early 213 to late 211. Estimations are, that neither side invested a lot of ressources in it and that it turned into a prolonged conflict of minor Naval skirmishes, in which Rome gained the upper hand. The result of the conflict was, that Andros was not annexed, but gained its independence from Egypt.

 

[Nikolai]

How do you mnage so much continous war and land grabs without BB being an issue?

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

How do you mnage so much continous war and land grabs without BB being an issue?

You mean Aggressive Expansion? I am roughly at 9 at the moment. I think I did some research to lower it`s effects.

EDIT:

The next annexation spree is just around the corner.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

57 - Entrance to Hispania (210)

Roughly around the year 600, settlers from the city of Phocaea (today Foca in Turkey) appeared at the mouth of the Rhone river and founded the settlement of Massalia, that is today Marseille. It would become a major trade hub in the region and center of a network of further settlements. Further to the west, another Phocaean place called Emporion (which means „trading place“; today Empurias) was founded in the early 6th Century together with other places, such a Rode a bit further to the north.

By 300, Emporion had emancipated itself from Massalia and controlled the regional coastline including the city of Rode. During the 3rd Century, there were several conflicts between these two cities, since Rode tried to gain its independence.

Our only source for the following events is Appian. According to him, an envoy from Rode appeared in Rome in 211 and was allowed to speak in the Senate. He described the plight of the people of Rode and asked for the help of the Republic, since Rome had established the independence of the people of Andros. Hence he called for the support of the Republic to also secure the freedom of the Greek people in the west.

It is highly debated, whether this event actually happened. But evidently the Republic sent a small fleet and eight thousand soldiers westward in early 210. By the end of the year, the city of Emporion had surrendered and Rome had a foothold on the Iberian peninsula.

After the Third Antigonid War, the Republic had to reconsider its strategy. Further expansion to the east would have meant advancing into Asia Minor and thus facing the opposition of the Antigonid, Seleucian and Ptolemaic Kingdoms. Another option would have been to expand north into Cisalpine Gaul with its few Gaul Tribes. But that would have meant to advance into the sphere of the Veneti, a tribe that the Republic was friends with and Rome does not seem to have ambitions to change that status at that time.

The remaining options would have been the South and the West. Both meant conflict with Carthage. Immediately in the South, where Carthage had subdued the whole African coast from central Libya to Morocco. Rather in the long run in the west in Hispania, that was still mostly controlled by different Tribes, although Carthage had annexed the south of the peninsula during the recent decades.

The Iberian Peninsula in 210 (1 = Emporion; 2 = Rode)​

Claiming Emporion was a good way to make landfall in Hispania without immediately provoking conflict with the Carthaginians. Hence it is the majority opinion among Historians today, that the story of the people of Rode seeking Roman help is an invention of later times to justify the sudden Roman presence in the West.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

58 - The Indigetian Campaign (209 - 208)

With the annexation of Emporion, the Republic had a first small foothold in Hispania, but it had to enlargen its holdings into a proper province. Beyond the Greek settlements along the coast was a plethora of Iberian and Celtiberian Tribes. The northeastern corner of Hispania was inhabited by the Indigetes, an Iberian Tribe around the settlements of Iuncaria and Auso.

Rome had sent reinforcements to Hispania, so that an estimated twenty to twenty-five thousand soldiers were now operative, waiting to break out of their small beachhead. In early 209, the formations spread out into the territory of the Indigetes.

It is believed, that the Indigetes were supported by other Iberian Tribes around, such as the Ilergetes in the west and the Sordones in the north. Nevertheless the Roman advance was met with little resistance and only small skirmishes are mentioned. Nevertheless it took until mid 208 to end the Campaign. The main reason for this was the need to besiege the main settlements of the Indigetes.

The Northeast of Hispania in 208​

In June 208 the Indigetes eventually surrendered and the Republic had gained its first major holdings on the Peninsula.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

59 - Across the Iberus (207)

Although it is still debated when or by whom the city of Sagunt was created, theories point to a date someday in the 5th Century. During the 3rd Century, the city expanded its influence northward along the coast and subdued some of the local Tribes, until its territory reached deep into today`s Catalonia.

But the city`s control over these territories was not firm. Local revolts broke out regularly. In the last years of the 3rd Century, it had to deal with an uprising of the Cessetani Tribe. Rome, after having conquered the Indigetes, immediately took advantage of this situation and let his troops march southward along the coast, occupying Sagunt`s territory, no matter whether in revolt or not.

Northeast of Hispania in 207​

Within a few months it had crossed the Iberus river (today: Ebro) and reduced Sagunt to its initial territory of roughly one century ago. For unknown reasons it spared a settlement close to the mouth of the Ebro. But at the end of the year 207 the Republic ordered the development of the city of Tarraco, which would be eponymous for the province of Hispania Tarraconensis and is today Tarragona.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

60 - The Sedetanian War (205 - 203)

During the brief Campaign of 207, the Republic had sweeped southward along the coast and occupied vast territories. This being done, it seeked to give its province more depth and move away from the coast into the hinterland.

Rome decided to challenge the Tribe of the Sedetani, which dwelled a bit northward of the city of Sagunt. It is assumed, that the Romans were not familiar with the local political networks. Although it is also argued, that the sudden appearance and expansion of the Republic created these political network, that it would face.

Northeast Hispania in 205​

But when Rome opened the hostilities against the Sedetani, it encountered an Alliance of several Tribes, since the Sedetani were supported by the Belli, Lusones, Arevaci and Vascones as well as the city of Sagunt, which had a vested interest in revenge. This Alliance represented a decent share of the northern Hispanian people.

During the first half year, the Republic had the initiative, won several skirmishes as well as the battle of Carae versus a Coalition of different Tribes. Eventually, in early 204, the main settlement of the Sedetani was captured.

The rest of 204 saw the Roman forces being split, without making further gains. Appian and Diodor both point out, that the Tribes had gained the support of Mercenary forces, that were operating in the Roman back, trying to lure the Romans away from the front. This strategy was partially successful, since the Romans were occupied with following the enemy and trying to hold their already made gains. The battles of Barcino (today: Barcelona) in July and Agiria in Dezember solved the situation and allowed the Republic to continue with its own plan.

In 203, Rome won small skirmishes with the remaining Tribal forces and eventually the successful siege of Dertosa at the coast. In October, the Romans accepted the surrender of the Alliance. The Sedetani and Belli were subdued and further territories of Sagunt annexed.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

61 - The Ilergetian Campaign (202 - 201)

After the recent success in the south, the Republic wanted to advance into the interior of Hispania further to the north too. Their next objective was to advance westward along the Pyrenees into the territory of the Ilergetes.

The Campaign lasted for roughly one year from early 202 to early 201 and was characterized by minor skirmishes as well as the sieges of Ilerda (today: Lleida) and Mendiculea. The latter was so severely looted, that roughly half the population was killed or enslaved in the aftermath.

After the fall of Mendiculea, the Ilergetes had to surrender and its territory was incorporated into the Roman province of Tarraconensis, which then comprised the whole of today`s Catalonia as well as small parts of Aragon.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

62 - Rome and the Mediterranean World in 200

The Eastern Mediterranean had seen large Empires for two thousand years already. From the Egyptians to the Hittites to the Persians to the Mycenaean Culture and eventually the Successor States. The 3rd Century introduced the concept of large political entities with a strong central power to the rest of the Mediterranean World.

Vast political changes occurred in the western Mediterranean. In 300, Carthage controlled mostly today`s Tunisia as well as coastal areas in Algeria and Libya. Rome was still in a struggle for supremacy in central Italy with the Etruscans and Samnites. During the next 100 years, these two cities would completely transform the region. Carthage subdued all North African tribal realms from Morocco to Libya. Rome united almost all of what is today Italy and subdued the Illyrian Tribes. Eventually both cities turned their eyes toward the Iberian Peninsula. In the late 3rd Century the local Tribes would quickly lose their independence in what some Authors call „The Race for Hispania“, that would ultimately lead to the clash for Supremacy over the western Mediterranean between the two Entities in the course of the 2nd Century.

The expansion of Rome also influenced the Hellenic world in the East. Even without their appearance, the Successor States went through changes. Thracia was destroyed in 300 already, while the Antigonid Kingdom was pushed westward into mainland Greece and Thracia. The beneficiary of the Antigonid Collapse was Egypt, that expanded into the Near East, Turkey, Thessaly and the Arabian Peninsula.

Eventually, with the appearance of the Roman Republic in the region, first the Kingdom of Macedonia, then the old city-states in Attica and the Peloponnese met their downfall. The Antigonids were forced eastward, where they occupied the north coast of Turkey from the Bosporus in the west to Armenia in the east. Finally all Successor States lost their influence in Greece and the Republic established its dominance over the cradle of Democracy.

For Rome, the 3rd Century brought several political and societal developments, that were an inevitable result of its transformation from a city-state in central Italy to the political center of an Empire, that now stretched from the Pyrenees to the Cyclades. During the 230s, the Republic went through the so-called „Populist Reforms“, when a series of Populist Politicians were elected as Consuls.

Part of these Reforms was to shorten the Term of Consuls from five to two years. Although a shorter term meant, that Consuls were less able to establish lasting networks and their power base remained rather weak, it also made the political landscape more erratic, since more time was spent with election campaigns. It is assumed, that the coherence, the sense of cooperation within Rome`s elite families began to deteriorate and the public debate became more hostile as a result of this change.

One of the key points in that period was the „Minority Crisis“. With the expansion of Rome, most inhabitants of the Republic were now neither belonging to a Latin culture nor able to become citizens. In 230, when both Consuls were Populists, a law was passed to improve the legal status of non-citizens. This led to fierce debates in the following years and several attempts to revoke that law.

During the next years, Rome seemed to come to terms with the fact, that the population in the occupied territories needed a status, that would benefit them enough to feel satisfied with being part of the Republic. Additionally the more developed Roman culture had the effect, that members of Tribal societies began to assimilate into the "Roman Way of Life". It is assumed, that by 200 the whole coastal area of Illyria was embracing Latin culture.

This strategy would not work in Macedonia and Greece with its equally developed and even older civilization. The plan to bring in Roman settlers to create Roman "cores" such as in Thessalonici or Argos did only create enclaves and resulted in segregation instead of assimilation. Hence the Senate decided in 201 to grant all "Macedonians", by which was meant the whole Hellenic population of Macedonia and Greece, the opportunity to obtain citizenship. Due to local protests against this decision, it would not be realized until 199.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

63 - The Sibuzatian Campaign (199)

"At the foot of the hills the whole might of Hispania and Gaul converged to face the Romans on the battlefield and drive them away from their land."

With these words Livy begins to describe the climax of the Campaign of 199. The Republic was striving to advance further westward in order to secure the lands south of the Pyrenees. This meant to intrude into the lands of the Sibuzates. This Gaul Tribe initially settled directly north of the mountains, but had expanded its influence across the passes into northern Hispania.

But it had maintained its political connections to other Gaul Tribes, that were willing to support the Sibuzates in defending their holdings against the Roman attack. Although Livy`s description exaggerates the size of the Hispanian-Gaul force by far, Historians agree that it was the largest Alliance that the Romans had faced in that Theater so far.

Rome began the Campaign with the siege of Bortina, the main settlement of the Sibuzates south of the Pyrenees. The city would surrender in late July. In the meantime the forces of several Tribes had united and were operating to the west of the city. The Roman army marched westward to face this threat, which led to the Battle of Gallicum, which took place probably on 30th August 199.

According to estimations, the Hispanian-Gaul army consisted of twenty thousand warriors, while the Romans brought roughly twenty-five thousand soldiers. According to Livy, both sides had roughly the same amount of Cavalry, that neutralized each other without having an impact on the result of the battle. Instead the battle was decided in the center, where the superior armor and discipline of the Romans made the difference and eventually pushed back the Tribal force.

The Sibuzates and their Allies lost six thousand men, while Rome also had casualties of at least three thousand soldiers. While this was a clear victory for the Republic, the lack of unity on the Hispanian-Gaul side led to further defeats in smaller skirmishes in the aftermath with maybe another six thousande men lost. After that, the Tribal force dissolved completely, with the remains retreating to Gaul.

The Republic had destroyed a large army of allied Tribes and, with the annexation of the Hispanian territory of the Sibuzates, further consolidated its dominant status in northern Hispania.

 

[HistoryDude]

As Greece is subdued, the Roman West grows.

Let the Republic make its Mare Nostrum!

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

64 - From Coast to Coast (197)

After the end of the Campaign versus the Sibuzates, the Republic tried to keep up the momentum in its push westward. The next target for its expansionism was the Tribe of the Lusones, that settled along the southern bank of the Ebro River.

As a result of the previous Campaigns, the territory of the Lusones was already almost encircled by the Roman holdings and without any doubt their Leaders knew, that Rome would sooner or later try to subdue them too. As a reaction they had forged an Alliance with the Arevaci to the west and the Vascones to the north in order to counter the Roman threat.

Despite these preparations, the Campaign of 197 would only last six months and see another major increase of Roman influence. The most time-consuming part of the Campaign was the siege of Salduba, the capital of the Lusones, that would become known as Caesaraugusta during the Roman Empire and Zaragoza today.

After the fall of Salduba, the Legions turned northward against the Vascones and occupied their territory in a swift operation. In the following peace, the territories of the Lusones and Vascones were annexed completely. The Republic now controlled all of northern Hispania from the Mediterranean Sea to the Bay of Biscay and thus all accesses to the Peninsula from the north.

 

[Stuckenschmidt]

As Greece is subdued, the Roman West grows.

Let the Republic make its Mare Nostrum!

Sounds like a plan. But by now Rome suffers from the Imperial dilemma. With so long borders and so many different people on the other side of them, it gets hard to decide who to shower with expansionism love and affection next.