Maria Gimbutas
The Slavic movement to the north was an external manifestation of instability in southern Russia and reflected changes in the ethnic structure.
The constant invasions of the Pechenegs, Bulgars and especially the Avars, who in the first half of the 6th century reached the border of dense forests along the Desna River and the upper reaches of the Oka, ended with the penetration of the Slavs into the lands of the Western Balts and Finno-Ugrians, where they almost did not meet with due resistance.
By the year 400 n. e. Intensive trade between the Balts and the Finno-Ugrians, which flourished in the 4th century, was interrupted. Some hill settlements and fortifications that were in the Baltic region were abandoned, in others, destruction caused by fires is visible. The surviving remnants of the settlements testify to the decline of material culture, being indirect evidence of the hardships that fell upon the Baltic tribes.
The first signs of Slavic expansion to the north have not yet been sufficiently confirmed by archaeological finds. Too insignificant was the number of burials and settlements. However, isolated barrows and settlements appeared here and there, similar to those found in the area of Kiev and Volyn and even in the Slavic lands of Central Europe, which cannot be considered Baltic. It seems that the territory between Kiev and Novgorod between the V and VIII centuries was consistently occupied by various tribal groups.
Settlements consisting of semi-underground dwellings (dugouts) with clay floors and walls, funeral accessories in round, conical or oblong mounds, wooden structures located inside the mounds, rough and polished ceramics similar to products from the Kiev and Volyn region, as well as from Bohemia and Moravians, became distinctive elements of Slavic culture, spread in the lands located north of Kiev and Voronezh.
A number of similar burials and settlements were found in Volhynia, in the Middle Dnieper region and in the region of the upper Don near Voronezh, they date from the 6th to the 9th century and are undoubtedly recognized as Slavic. They are referred to as “Prague-type settlements” in Volyn, “hilly fortifications of Romensky type” (located along the lower reaches of the Desna), along the Seim, Sula and Vorsk-la rivers and “Borschevsky type fortifications on the upper Don and Upper Oka.
Separate differences in the types of burials indicate that they could relate to several Western tribes, Drevlyane, meadows and Vyatichi. Information about them has been preserved from the time of the first historical records. The dating of early burials and villages is based solely on a comparison of their ceramics with that known from finds in Bohemia and Moravia, and makes it possible to attribute these burials and settlements to the 6th — 7th centuries. If some of the kurgans and hill fortifications can even be dated to the 5th century, it is obvious that further research is also needed. Indeed, no metal objects of the corresponding time were found in the burials.
Early signs of the Slavs' presence in the north were found in the territory of Pskov, in the east of Estonia and Latvia, and south of Lake Peipsi, in the Great River Basin. Long, narrow burial mounds with cremation graves and very rare burial utensils, identified as belonging to the Krivichy tribe, were found here.
Dating back to the 5th century is based on finds of round and convex ornamented bronze plates, tweezers and bracelets, thinned to the ends. Similar patterns are found in Finno-Ugric stone mounds in Estonia. Most likely, the first Krivichi occupied the hill settlement in Pskov, and their culture superimposed on the Finno-Ugric stratum of the so-called Dyakovsky type, and the unfortified settlements located along the headwaters of the Great River replaced the Baltic hill settlements with smooth and rough ceramics. In these settlements, there are ceramics and metal objects of this type, which are found in long barrows.
It is strange that the first mounds and settlements attributed to this tribe are located so far in the north, and not in the upper reaches of the Dvina River and in the territories of Smolensk and Polotsk, where Krivichy are observed from the 7th to the 13th century. It is obvious that during their expansions they did not use the Dnieper route, most likely coming through the upper reaches of the Neman River and through the lands of the carriers of the Baltic comb ceramics.
Nevertheless, the few archaeological finds do not allow us to talk about the settlement of modern Eastern Belarus by Krivichy. However, there are certain linguistic evidence that suggests that it was from here that Krivichi were distributed. Say, these are early Slavic borrowings from the Baltic languages (for example, the name of the Meretz river from the Lithuanian Merkis, a tributary of the Upper Neman, which linguists refer to the 9th century) and the relationship between the early Pskov and Polish dialects.
In the modern districts of Smolensk and Polotsk, long krivich type mounds date back to VIII century, and only some attribute them to the earlier period. Many mounds in these areas contain exclusively Baltic finds of Latgale type. They date from the V-XII centuries. Even south of Smolensk, Moscow and Kaluga along the tributaries of the Zhizdra River and
upper reaches of the gums a number of excavated kurgans burials and fortifications of the Baltic type contains finds similar to those found in Eastern Latvia, or identical to them. Dated these objects even XII century.
With the help of archaeological finds one can definitely confirm the existence of the descendants of the Balts east of Moscow, on the territory located between Smolensk, Kaluga and Bryansk up to the XII century. Moreover, they can be correlated with the Galindian tribe, known from the Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles. They describe the wars between the Russian local rulers and the Galindians on the Protva River, which took place in the 11th — 12th centuries.
The invasions of the Slavs could not erase the Balts from the face of the earth. They continued to exist in the form of large and small associations for many centuries. It is very likely that before the Slavic tribes of Krivichy, Dregovich and Radimichi became predominant in the upper basin of the Dnieper, the Baltic population existed at this place, whose culture was close to the Latgals living in eastern Latvia.
It is obvious to us that from the moment of the Slavic invasion until the formation of three Slavic principalities: Novgorod, Ryazan and Kiev - in the 9th century, and even several centuries later, a significant number of Balts continued to live on the territory of modern Belarus and in the west of Great Russia.
The process of Slavicization began in prehistoric times and continued until the XIX century. Belarusians borrowed a lot of words, mostly from everyday language, mostly from Lithuanian peasant vocabulary. The ethnography of the districts of Kaluga, Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk and Minsk right up to the middle of the XIX century clearly indicates its Baltic character. Indeed, the Slavicization of the Western Balts seized most of the population of the modern territory of Belarus and part of Great Russia.
The Slavic movement to the north was an external manifestation of instability in southern Russia and reflected changes in the ethnic structure.
The constant invasions of the Pechenegs, Bulgars and especially the Avars, who in the first half of the 6th century reached the border of dense forests along the Desna River and the upper reaches of the Oka, ended with the penetration of the Slavs into the lands of the Western Balts and Finno-Ugrians, where they almost did not meet with due resistance.
By the year 400 n. e. Intensive trade between the Balts and the Finno-Ugrians, which flourished in the 4th century, was interrupted. Some hill settlements and fortifications that were in the Baltic region were abandoned, in others, destruction caused by fires is visible. The surviving remnants of the settlements testify to the decline of material culture, being indirect evidence of the hardships that fell upon the Baltic tribes.
The first signs of Slavic expansion to the north have not yet been sufficiently confirmed by archaeological finds. Too insignificant was the number of burials and settlements. However, isolated barrows and settlements appeared here and there, similar to those found in the area of Kiev and Volyn and even in the Slavic lands of Central Europe, which cannot be considered Baltic. It seems that the territory between Kiev and Novgorod between the V and VIII centuries was consistently occupied by various tribal groups.
Settlements consisting of semi-underground dwellings (dugouts) with clay floors and walls, funeral accessories in round, conical or oblong mounds, wooden structures located inside the mounds, rough and polished ceramics similar to products from the Kiev and Volyn region, as well as from Bohemia and Moravians, became distinctive elements of Slavic culture, spread in the lands located north of Kiev and Voronezh.
A number of similar burials and settlements were found in Volhynia, in the Middle Dnieper region and in the region of the upper Don near Voronezh, they date from the 6th to the 9th century and are undoubtedly recognized as Slavic. They are referred to as “Prague-type settlements” in Volyn, “hilly fortifications of Romensky type” (located along the lower reaches of the Desna), along the Seim, Sula and Vorsk-la rivers and “Borschevsky type fortifications on the upper Don and Upper Oka.
Separate differences in the types of burials indicate that they could relate to several Western tribes, Drevlyane, meadows and Vyatichi. Information about them has been preserved from the time of the first historical records. The dating of early burials and villages is based solely on a comparison of their ceramics with that known from finds in Bohemia and Moravia, and makes it possible to attribute these burials and settlements to the 6th — 7th centuries. If some of the kurgans and hill fortifications can even be dated to the 5th century, it is obvious that further research is also needed. Indeed, no metal objects of the corresponding time were found in the burials.
Early signs of the Slavs' presence in the north were found in the territory of Pskov, in the east of Estonia and Latvia, and south of Lake Peipsi, in the Great River Basin. Long, narrow burial mounds with cremation graves and very rare burial utensils, identified as belonging to the Krivichy tribe, were found here.
Dating back to the 5th century is based on finds of round and convex ornamented bronze plates, tweezers and bracelets, thinned to the ends. Similar patterns are found in Finno-Ugric stone mounds in Estonia. Most likely, the first Krivichi occupied the hill settlement in Pskov, and their culture superimposed on the Finno-Ugric stratum of the so-called Dyakovsky type, and the unfortified settlements located along the headwaters of the Great River replaced the Baltic hill settlements with smooth and rough ceramics. In these settlements, there are ceramics and metal objects of this type, which are found in long barrows.
It is strange that the first mounds and settlements attributed to this tribe are located so far in the north, and not in the upper reaches of the Dvina River and in the territories of Smolensk and Polotsk, where Krivichy are observed from the 7th to the 13th century. It is obvious that during their expansions they did not use the Dnieper route, most likely coming through the upper reaches of the Neman River and through the lands of the carriers of the Baltic comb ceramics.
Nevertheless, the few archaeological finds do not allow us to talk about the settlement of modern Eastern Belarus by Krivichy. However, there are certain linguistic evidence that suggests that it was from here that Krivichi were distributed. Say, these are early Slavic borrowings from the Baltic languages (for example, the name of the Meretz river from the Lithuanian Merkis, a tributary of the Upper Neman, which linguists refer to the 9th century) and the relationship between the early Pskov and Polish dialects.
In the modern districts of Smolensk and Polotsk, long krivich type mounds date back to VIII century, and only some attribute them to the earlier period. Many mounds in these areas contain exclusively Baltic finds of Latgale type. They date from the V-XII centuries. Even south of Smolensk, Moscow and Kaluga along the tributaries of the Zhizdra River and
upper reaches of the gums a number of excavated kurgans burials and fortifications of the Baltic type contains finds similar to those found in Eastern Latvia, or identical to them. Dated these objects even XII century.
With the help of archaeological finds one can definitely confirm the existence of the descendants of the Balts east of Moscow, on the territory located between Smolensk, Kaluga and Bryansk up to the XII century. Moreover, they can be correlated with the Galindian tribe, known from the Laurentian and Ipatiev Chronicles. They describe the wars between the Russian local rulers and the Galindians on the Protva River, which took place in the 11th — 12th centuries.
The invasions of the Slavs could not erase the Balts from the face of the earth. They continued to exist in the form of large and small associations for many centuries. It is very likely that before the Slavic tribes of Krivichy, Dregovich and Radimichi became predominant in the upper basin of the Dnieper, the Baltic population existed at this place, whose culture was close to the Latgals living in eastern Latvia.
It is obvious to us that from the moment of the Slavic invasion until the formation of three Slavic principalities: Novgorod, Ryazan and Kiev - in the 9th century, and even several centuries later, a significant number of Balts continued to live on the territory of modern Belarus and in the west of Great Russia.
The process of Slavicization began in prehistoric times and continued until the XIX century. Belarusians borrowed a lot of words, mostly from everyday language, mostly from Lithuanian peasant vocabulary. The ethnography of the districts of Kaluga, Moscow, Smolensk, Vitebsk, Polotsk and Minsk right up to the middle of the XIX century clearly indicates its Baltic character. Indeed, the Slavicization of the Western Balts seized most of the population of the modern territory of Belarus and part of Great Russia.
