Lore: Anglo-Saxon Runes and Letters
LORE: ANGLO-SAXON RUNES AND LETTERS
Like many contemporary Germanic cultures, the early Anglo-Saxons used a runic alphabet called futhorc (or more properly fuþorc) after its first six characters. It is similar to the Elder Futhark runes that were used in Old Norse, with the major difference being that Old English almost universally uses the letter C where Old Norse uses K. It was quite a sophisticated writing system, with each rune representing both a sound and a concept because they were derived from earlier pictographs.
For instance, the Þ rune (thorn) appears to have originally been a pictograph of a thorn on a stem, and was used to represent the first consonant of the word “thorn.” However, this derivation is uncertain, as the exact same rune is called thurs in Old Norse, meaning “giant.” The conflicting etymologies are shown in each culture’s rune poems, which were mnemonic devices created to help people remember the order, form, and name of each rune. In this instance, the same rune is given a very different meaning and origin by the two different cultures.
“The thorn is exceedingly sharp, an evil thing for any theġn to touch, uncommonly severe on all who sit among them.” - the Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem
“Thurs is the anguish of women, and a cliff-dweller, and the husband of a giantess, [Ymir’s] theġn.” - the Icelandic Rune Poem
“Thurs is the anguish of women, and a cliff-dweller, and the husband of a giantess, [Ymir’s] theġn.” - the Icelandic Rune Poem
By the eighth century, futhorc was beginning to be supplanted by the Insular script, a variant of the Latin alphabet that had been introduced to England by Irish missionaries. Insular script's uniquely curved letters were noteworthy for being much more legible than the sloppy Merovingian Frankish script used across the Channel. Insular script also had around half a dozen variants, from a highly formal full uncial, to the very popular half-uncial used in a lot of ecclesiastical literature from the period, to a more fluid cursive style. The Lindisfarne Gospels (see above) provide a great juxtaposition of a Latin text written using more formal Insular half-uncial majuscule with Old English annotations in a more relaxed Insular minuscule.
Æ, æ (æsc): This common Latin ligature was used to transliterate the æsc rune, one of the most common vowel sounds in Old English. However, rather than making the [aɪ] diphthong as in Latin, in Old English Æ was used for the ă (short a) sound as in modern English “ash” and “apple,” similar to modern High German ä. (Examples: Ælfred, ealdfæder.) It is also used for the [æ] sound in IPA for which it lends its symbol.
Œ, œ (œthel): Another common Latin ligature, this was used as a transliteration of the ēðel rune. It was used much less commonly than Æ in Old English and was generally only used for proper names and foreign words. Œ made the [ø] sound, similar to modern Norwegian and Danish ø, Swedish and High German ö, and the vowel sounds in modern English “bird” and “burn.” (Examples: Œthelwald, Cœnwulf.) In IPA, this sound is written as [ø] rather than [œ], because the latter is used for the French œ (as in “cœur”).
Ð, ð (eth): This letter was introduced from Insular script, ostensibly to make the voiced th sound [ð] (for which it also lends its symbol in IPA). This is the sound used in words like “this” and “that.” (Examples: rǽseð, wráðscræf.) Unfortunately, Anglo-Saxon scribes often used Ð interchangeably with Þ below, making it difficult to determine when a given th sound is supposed to be voiced or unvoiced.
Þ, þ (thorn): The thorn rune was borrowed from futhorc to represent the unvoiced th sound [θ], as in English “thistle” and “thunder.” (Examples: æþeling, þeóden.) However, as mentioned above, Anglo-Saxon scribes often used it interchangeably with Ð, which makes things complicated for the modern reader. However, Old Norse preserved the clear delineation between the voiced Ð and unvoiced Þ.
Ƿ, ƿ (wynn): Since the letter W did not yet exist, Anglo-Saxon scribes borrowed the wynn rune from futhorc to make the [w] sound. (Examples: Ƿinƿæd, ƿǣpnedmann.) Later scribes used “uu” instead, which ultimately evolved into the more familiar “w.”
Ᵹ, ᵹ; Ȝ, ȝ (yogh): Also known as the “Insular G,” this symbol was another letter introduced from Insular script. It was used for both the [y] and [g] sounds, depending on the word. (Examples: Ᵹewæsċ, ᵹiestrandæᵹ.) In modern transcriptions of Old English texts, it is occasionally written with the later Middle English ȝ or sometimes as ġ when a [y] sound is intended.
⁊ (Tironian et): This symbol resembling the number 7 was part of a Roman shorthand system devised in ancient times by Tiro, the secretary of Cicero. Anglo-Saxon scribes used this symbol in place of the word “and,” which had the same meaning as today but would have been pronounced more like “ond” (which incidentally is also an alternative spelling of the same word in Old English). Its modern equivalent is the & symbol, which is itself simply a ligature of the letters forming the Latin word “et.”
Ꝥ (þæt): This symbol is simply a thorn with an added stroke at the top like an eth. It was used as an abbreviation for the everyday word þæt, which not only meant and was pronounced “that,” but depending on the context could also mean “the,” “so that,” “they,” “those,” or even “without” (when followed by a negative phrase).
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Author's Note: I know that was a lot of material to process, so please pardon my unabashed nerdiness. My apologies if some of the rarer characters don't show up correctly on your screen. I learned most of this material years ago in my graduate school paleography class, which was quite a treat. Oddly enough, some of the skills I learned in that class have proven useful in modern life… like when I need to interpret an employer’s sloppy handwriting.
The frontispiece of this update is an Anglo-Saxon artifact known as the Franks Casket. It was an ornately carved whale ivory box made to hold a psalter or some other sacred book, and it is a great example of Anglo-Saxon runic script. The carvings also illustrate how traditional Germanic mythology, classical Greco-Roman literature, and Judeo-Christian religious tropes were blended together in Anglo-Saxon society. The front of the casket depicts the gruesome legend of Weyland the Smith, a Germanic demigod (left), juxtaposed with the Adoration of the Christ Child by the Magi (right). Other panels depict Romulus and Remus being suckled by a she-wolf, Titus sacking Jerusalem in A.D. 70, and several other scenes with uncertain interpretations. It's quite a remarkable piece.
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