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At the beginning of the 13th century, Sub-Saharan Africa underwent significant political changes, particularly along its southern coast. The once-dominant Kingdom of Akan, which had controlled vast territories along the Gulf of Guinea for decades, lost a significant portion of its lands. This decline resulted from both internal crises and the expansion of new regional powers. The kingdoms of Konowid and Kong managed to gain independence, weakening Akan’s former hegemony. Despite this setback, Akan remains an important player in the region, striving to rebuild its position and compete for influence in the gold trade and other valuable resources.
North of these states, the political landscape is far more fragmented, with many smaller kingdoms vying for control over trade routes. None of these states hold a dominant position, leading to frequent conflicts and shifting alliances. This region plays a crucial role as a transitional zone between Sub-Saharan Africa and the Sahara, serving as a hub for trade between the southern and northern parts of the continent.
The most powerful state in the region at the beginning of the 13th century is the Kingdom of Siwaid. Siwaid extends its power from the Atlantic Ocean to the Sahara, controlling strategic trade routes and key salt and gold production regions. Its main rival is Kanem-Bornu, which has developed along the Niger River and possesses strong military and political traditions.
Central Asia – 1200 AD
At the beginning of the 13th century, Central Asia remains a politically unstable region, divided among numerous nomadic khanates and settled kingdoms. Over the past two centuries, no single state has been able to permanently dominate the area, with successive powers rising and falling due to tribal rivalries, succession wars, and invasions by neighboring empires.
One of the most significant events was the collapse of the Volga-Ural Empire, which had been a key power in the northern part of the region during the 12th century. Its downfall resulted from prolonged dynastic conflicts and aristocratic factional struggles, leading to the emergence of three new kingdoms: Perm, Yugra, and Volga.
To the east of these kingdoms lies the vast Kingdom of Ob, which controls enormous stretches of taiga and tundra up to the borders of the newly formed Mongol Empire. It is a highly decentralized state where local rulers retain considerable autonomy while acknowledging the authority of the central monarch. The proximity of the expansionist Mongol Empire puts this kingdom in an uncertain position—although it has not yet become a target of Mongol invasions, its location makes it a likely future direction for Temujin’s expansion.
The southern part of Central Asia remains dominated by nomadic khanates, with the Kuman Confederation and the Khanate of Turan being the most powerful political entities. Despite internal rivalries, the nomadic societies of this region maintain their mobility and capacity to launch large-scale military campaigns.
A looming threat over all of Central Asia is Temujin, who is gradually transforming his state into the dominant force in the region. His extraordinary military skills and ability to unite various tribes under his banner make him a deadly menace to all existing kingdoms and khanates.
Although at the beginning of the 13th century, the Mongols are focused on expanding eastward, their armies will undoubtedly turn westward toward Central Asia in the near future.
Siberia, Mongolia – 1200 AD
At the beginning of the 13th century, the entire region of Mongolia and its surroundings came under the undisputed rule of the Great Mongol Khanate, founded and led by Temujin. His rapid conquests and remarkable ability to unite nomadic tribes led to the downfall of all competing khanates and clans that had previously dominated the area.
As a result of these campaigns, his state has become a new and immensely powerful force in the region, against which no one can effectively resist militarily. The only exception is the small Khanate of Namai, located north of Lake Baikal, whose isolation and harsh geographical conditions have so far protected it from Mongol invasion.
Temujin’s state borders the Kingdom of Ob and the Khanate of Turan to the west, which still maintain their independence but face growing pressure from Mongol expansionist ambitions. To the east, the borders of the Mongol Empire extend to Manchuria, where independent khanates such as the Khitan, Shiwei, and Solon still exist. However, their future is uncertain, as Temujin has already demonstrated that he does not tolerate rivals in his vicinity.
The authority of the Great Khan is absolute, and his warriors—experienced, disciplined, and loyal—pose a threat to all of Asia. With Mongolia’s growing power, both its eastern and western neighbors must prepare for an impending confrontation.
Manchuria, Korea, and Japan – 1200 AD
At the beginning of the 13th century, Manchuria remains a region dominated by three powerful nomadic khanates that play a key role in the region’s politics. In the west, the Khitan and Shiwei khanates directly border the expansionist Mongol Empire of Temujin, making their future highly uncertain.
To the east, the Amur Khanate controls lands along the Pacific Ocean coastline and holds strategic significance for trade and rivalry with neighboring powers. North of these states, smaller tribal organizations of indigenous Siberian and Ainu peoples maintain relative independence but remain vulnerable to the influence of larger neighbors.
On the Korean Peninsula, the balance of power is divided between the north, controlled by the Amur Khanate, and the south, where the independent Kingdom of Silla exists. The rivalry between these two entities plays a crucial role in regional politics, with external influences—particularly from Manchuria and Japan—often shaping events.
On the Japanese islands, a unified shogunate holds real power over the country, while the emperor serves only as a symbolic ruler. The only exception is Hokkaido, where the local Ainu people retain their independence, maintaining a distinct culture and way of life separate from Japan’s feudal structure.
With the rising power of Mongolia, the entire region faces potential changes that could reshape its geopolitical landscape.
China - 1200 AD
At the beginning of the 13th century, China remains in a state of political fragmentation, a condition that has persisted since the fall of the Zhao Dynasty at the end of the 9th century. For centuries, various warlords, local noble families, and ambitious rulers have attempted to reunify the Middle Kingdom, but none have achieved lasting success.
By the year 1200, the most powerful and influential state in the region is the Kingdom of Nanyue, which controls southern China. It is a strong economic and military power, giving it the best chances of uniting the country under a single banner. The rulers of Nanyum pursue an expansionist policy, conquering neighboring principalities and solidifying their dominance in the region.
In the north, the situation is far more unstable, with three rival kingdoms—Wu, Zhou, and Xia—competing for territorial expansion and dominance. Their constant conflicts and shifting alliances create an environment of ongoing warfare.
Additionally, parts of northern China are under the control of the expansionist Amur Khanate, which invaded the region in the 12th century, subjugating vast areas. Under the rule of these nomadic overlords, these territories have become a zone of cultural and political struggle, where local elites seek to navigate the new balance of power.
Despite the relative stability in the south and fragmentation in the north, China's future remains uncertain. The growing power of Temujin’s Mongol Empire poses a significant threat, as the Mongol Khanate now directly borders the northern Chinese states. At any moment, an invasion could begin, potentially reshaping the region’s entire political landscape.
Indochina - 1200 AD
At the beginning of the 13th century, Indochina is a region dominated by strong and centralized kingdoms. To the north, along the border with the Chinese Kingdom of Nanyue, the powerful Kingdom of Annam reigns supreme. Its formation was the result of a long process of consolidation, where small principalities and local states gradually united under a single rule over the past two centuries. Thanks to its strategic position, Annam wields considerable economic and military influence, both over neighboring Indochinese states and the Chinese dynasties to the north.
Further south, three competing kingdoms—Champa, Isana, and Hariphunchai—struggle for supremacy. These states have waged numerous wars, expanding their territories at the expense of their neighbors. Over the past two centuries, they have engaged in fierce battles, frequently shifting borders and influence across the region. Their expansion particularly affected the Kingdom of Lavarupa and Kambuja, the latter of which ultimately collapsed under repeated invasions. In its place, the new Kingdom of Langasuka emerged, striving to maintain its independence amid aggressive neighbors.
To the west of Indochina, near the Indian border, lies the mighty Kingdom of Pagan. One of the oldest states in the region, Pagan is renowned for its rich culture and religious influence, particularly in the spread of Buddhism. It maintains strong trade relations with both India and neighboring Indochinese states, balancing military expansion with strategic diplomatic alliances.
Indonesia - 1200 AD
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Indonesian archipelago is divided between centralized feudal kingdoms and loose tribal federations. Regions such as New Guinea and the Philippines remain dominated by tribal confederations and semi-barbarian kingdoms, characterized by weak central authority and frequent internal conflicts.
The political structures in these lands are primarily based on alliances among local chiefs and clans vying for influence and resources. In contrast, Borneo, Sumatra, Java, and parts of the Malay Peninsula are home to more stable and organized feudal monarchies that exert control over vast territories and actively engage in trade and military expansion.
The two largest and most powerful kingdoms in the region are Sunda and the Kingdom of Java. Sunda controls southern Borneo, western Java, and eastern Sumatra, making it one of the most formidable states in the archipelago. Meanwhile, the Kingdom of Java dominates eastern Java and numerous smaller islands stretching toward New Guinea, with the exception of Sulawesi, where independent local states still exist. These two kingdoms compete for dominance in the archipelago, maintaining tense relations that lead to periodic conflicts and shifting alliances with other regional states.
Sumatra and parts of the Malay Peninsula fall under the rule of the Kingdom of Melayu, one of the key players in the region. By controlling strategic maritime trade routes, Melayu maintains a dominant position in international commerce, particularly in trade between India, China, and the rest of Southeast Asia.
At the beginning of the 13th century, the Tauric Empire, ruled by the Hyrcanis dynasty, had reached its greatest territorial extent and the peak of its political and military power. This empire stretched from the shores of the Baltic Sea in the north, controlling Courland, Semigallia, Samogitia, and Prussia, to the shores of the Black Sea in the south. Its western border followed the Vistula River and the Carpathian Mountains, which served as a natural barrier against potential aggressors from the west. Through these territorial acquisitions, the empire solidified its dominance over Eastern Europe, maintaining control over key trade routes and strategic fortresses.
The northern borders of the empire neighbored the powerful Kingdom of Estonia, which had emerged as the hegemonic power of the Baltic region. Estonia, formed through the conquests and unification of Novgorod and Bjarmaland, controlled vast territories from the Baltic to the White Sea. Although relations between the two states remained mostly peaceful, Estonia’s growing strength posed a potential threat to Tauric dominance in the region. To the east, the empire had no clearly defined borders—its influence extended as far as the Urals, where independent tribes and nomadic khanates still resisted imperial authority.
The southern part of the empire encompassed Hellas, Epirus, Anatolia, and the islands of Crete and Cyprus, forming the foundation of its dominance in the Mediterranean basin. By controlling these regions, the empire secured vital trade routes and strategic ports, enabling it to dominate commerce between Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa. The rulers of the Hyrcanis dynasty implemented numerous administrative and military reforms, allowing them to maintain control over this vast and diverse territory while strengthening its economy and infrastructure.
The year 1200 AD marked the twilight of Emperor Theodoros V’s reign, under whom the Tauric Empire had reached the height of its power. At this time, the state surpassed even the ancient Tauric Empire in influence and size. However, maintaining such a vast empire became an increasing challenge, and inevitable internal tensions and growing external threats foreshadowed future conflicts and a potential weakening of imperial dominance.
Government and Nobility
The Tauric Empire based its administration on a highly centralized system of governance, in which the emperor held absolute authority over the state. Following the principle that the empire was his personal domain, the emperor granted land to noble families, who governed these territories in his name.
The administrative structure consisted of provinces and governorates, overseen by aristocrats from the empire’s most influential families. The major noble houses enjoyed considerable autonomy in their domains but remained directly subordinate to the emperor, who could revoke their lands in cases of disloyalty. Through this system, the emperor maintained strict control over the ruling elite and prevented separatist tendencies.
At the beginning of the 13th century, five noble houses held the greatest influence over the empire’s administration and politics. These were the Houses of Proctid, Hyrcanis-Selb, Hyrcanis-Ainos, Hyrcanis-Uppsala, and Hyrcanis-Lokrytsia, all branches of the ruling dynasty. Each of these families controlled key regions of the empire, managing their economies, taxation, and military defense.
Hyrcanis-Lokrytsia, considered the most loyal to the emperor, ruled over strategic provinces in the southern Caucasus.
Proctid and Hyrcanis-Ainos dominated the regions of Asia Minor and Hellas.
Hyrcanis-Selb and Hyrcanis-Uppsala governed the western and northern lands of the empire, maintaining influence over the Baltic territories and the eastern steppes.
Besides these five great houses, there were an additional 36 lesser aristocratic families that played crucial roles in managing the empire’s territories. Although they lacked the power of the major houses, they were essential for maintaining administrative and military stability. Their members occupied high positions in the military, judiciary, and religious hierarchy, as well as serving as governors of smaller provinces.
The Imperial Capital: Satyria
The capital of the Tauric Empire, Satyria, was one of the largest and wealthiest cities in the world in the year 1200 AD. Located at a strategic crossroads of trade routes on the southern coast of the Tauric Peninsula (Crimea), it served as the empire’s administrative, cultural, and economic center.
The city was characterized by monumental architecture—palaces, temples, and theaters built from white marble gave it a majestic appearance. The heart of Satyria was the Grand Imperial Palace, surrounded by an administrative complex and a forum where officials and the aristocracy gathered. Nearby were wealthy residential districts, while markets and artisan workshops thrived near the bustling ports. The city also boasted an advanced infrastructure, including paved streets, aqueducts supplying water to fountains and public baths, and numerous temples and libraries.
Trade played a crucial role in the empire’s economy, and Satyria and the entire Tauric Peninsula were the heart of commerce between East and West. Its location on the Black Sea provided access to maritime routes connecting the empire with Anatolia, Hellas, the Levant, and the coasts of Europe.
The ports of Satyria and Maeoti were bustling with activity, receiving ships laden with spices, silk, and porcelain from the Far East, as well as grain, wine, and olive oil from Mediterranean regions. In exchange, the empire exported metals, timber, furs, and artisan goods highly valued in Western and Arab kingdoms. A vast network of land routes also existed—merchant caravans traveled across the steppes northward to the Estonian borders and eastward toward Central Asia and the lands of the Middle Kingdom.
Infrastructure and Defense
A highly developed infrastructure was a key element of the empire’s strength, particularly its extensive roads, bridges, and fortifications. The empire ensured the maintenance of excellent connections between its provinces, enabling the rapid transport of goods, troops, and messengers. The Tauric Peninsula was covered by a network of paved roads linking the capital to other key cities such as Maeoti and Kimmerion.
Cities featured sewage systems and public water reservoirs, ensuring a high level of sanitation. The fortifications surrounding Satyria and other major cities, including massive port walls, made them highly resistant to enemy attacks. Thanks to this infrastructure and a strong economy, the capital and its surrounding regions were the heart of the Tauric Empire, symbolizing its wealth, power, and cultural dominance.
The Army of the Tauric Empire
The Army of the Tauric Empire in the year 1300 AD was one of the most powerful and well-trained military forces in the region, combining numerical strength with high mobility. The core of the military consisted of the professional Imperial Legions, numbering 42,000 soldiers, whose backbone was highly skilled horse archers. This elite formation continued a military tradition dating back to ancient times, allowing the empire to conduct rapid campaigns across vast imperial territories.
Horse archers, armed with composite bows and light lamellar armor, employed hit-and-run tactics, forcing enemies into chaotic skirmishes. The legions were also supported by heavily armored cavalry units, infantry, and specialized engineering units responsible for sieges and fortification construction.
Beyond the professional legions, the emperor had the ability to levy peasant troops, further increasing the state's military potential. In times of need, the ruler could call upon nearly 33,000 recruits, primarily for border defense and to support the main forces. Although peasant infantry was less trained and poorly equipped compared to professional warriors, it played a vital role in securing provinces and covering the movements of the legions.
Additionally, the imperial armies were reinforced by contingents provided by aristocratic families and vassals, enabling a flexible response to both internal and external threats. Thanks to this structure, the imperial army was capable of conducting both prolonged campaigns and swift strikes, forming the foundation of the Tauric Empire’s power at the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries.
The horse archers of the Tauric Empire formed the elite core of the imperial army, numbering as many as 24,000 soldiers, making them the primary striking force of the state. Recruitment for this formation was drawn from the best warriors, both from aristocratic ranks and free settlers from the frontier regions. Training lasted many years and encompassed not only mastery of horseback archery but also formation tactics, rapid maneuvers, and the effective use of terrain.
Every warrior had to learn to shoot accurately both at full gallop and while retreating, utilizing the classic hit-and-run strategy. In addition to combat skills, soldiers underwent rigorous training in navigation, survival, and melee combat for close-quarters engagements.
The Imperial Cataphracts formed the heavily armored elite of the Tauric Empire’s army, numbering 8,700 soldiers. These were handpicked warriors, primarily from aristocratic families and distinguished military lineages. Their training lasted many years and included intensive exercises in mounted combat, both in formation and in individual duels.
Cataphracts had to master complete control over their horses while wearing full armor, breaking through enemy lines, and coordinating attacks in tight formations. Their strength lay in their charge—a devastating assault capable of breaking even the most well-fortified enemy positions. Due to their prolonged training, they were able to conduct multiple charges and engage in close-quarters combat, making them indispensable in critical moments of battle.
The heavily armored imperial infantry, numbering 4,400 soldiers, was an elite assault and defensive force used for holding positions and breaking enemy lines. Soldiers of this formation underwent intense training in melee combat, marching in heavy armor, and coordinating maneuvers in tight formations. Their key tactic involved operating in a shield wall or phalanx formation, making them an almost impenetrable barrier on the battlefield.
They were armed with long spears or pikes for repelling cavalry, broad-bladed swords for close combat, and large rectangular shields providing protection against projectiles. Their armor consisted of full chainmail or lamellar armor, reinforced with steel greaves and pauldrons, making them extremely resilient to attacks.
The lightly armored imperial infantry, also numbering 4,400 soldiers, served as battlefield support, providing mobility, reconnaissance capabilities, and effectiveness in skirmishing operations. These soldiers were trained in rapid movement across difficult terrain, avoiding direct engagements with heavier units, and utilizing ambushes and skirmish tactics.
The imperial army’s engineering corps played a key role in siege operations, operating and constructing powerful war machines such as trebuchets and onagers. Soldiers in this formation were highly skilled craftsmen and military engineers, trained in building fortifications, digging tunnels, and effectively using siege engines.
Trebuchets, with their long-range destructive power, were used to demolish fortress walls and strategic structures, while onagers effectively bombarded enemies with volleys of stones and incendiary projectiles. The engineering corps also served as logistical support, responsible for building bridges, field fortifications, and securing crossings for the imperial army. Their knowledge and expertise often determined the success of sieges and the effectiveness of the imperial military’s offensive operations.
Spartokos VII ascended the throne during a difficult period in the history of the Tauric Empire. The Theodoros Plague, which broke out in 1206 AD, decimated the population, weakened the economy, and severely strained the administrative structures of the empire.
The death of his father, Theodoros V, forced Spartokos VII to take power at the young age of 20, without sufficient experience in governance. While he was generous to his supporters, his unpredictability and tendency toward impulsive decisions made him an erratic ruler. His marriage to Cecek, a descendant of the legendary leader of the Cumans and Kipchaks, was intended to strengthen the alliance with the nomadic steppe peoples.
Despite the plague receding in 1209 AD, its effects left deep scars on the state’s structure. Depopulated provinces, abandoned cities, and the collapse of many craft centers led to economic stagnation. The plague also affected the army, weakening the empire’s defensive capabilities.
Spartokos VII faced the urgent need to rebuild both the taxation system and the military, but his unpredictable nature led to numerous conflicts among the aristocracy and imperial administration. The great noble houses, once loyal to the dynasty, began to fight for greater autonomy and influence, sensing the weakening of central authority.
The Theodoros Plague forever changed the face of the Tauric Empire—it diminished its military and economic potential and undermined the authority of imperial rule. Spartokos VII had to confront a new reality in which the empire’s former glory was in question.
In the early years of his reign, from 1208 to 1215 AD, Emperor Spartokos VII focused on rebuilding and stabilizing the Empire after the devastating epidemic.
During this period, despite the difficulties of reconstruction, the emperor celebrated the birth of his children—his son Gorgippos, who would become his heir, and his daughter Eupoire.
Unfortunately, these joyful events were overshadowed by the tragic fate of his wife, Empress Cecek, who died in childbirth while delivering one of their children.
During this time, an assassination plot against the emperor was also uncovered. The master of spies and governor of the province of Kurus, Aristonikos, through his vigilance and skill, managed to thwart the planned attack.
Although his actions successfully prevented the young emperor’s murder, the true mastermind behind the conspiracy remained unknown. This mysterious situation caused anxiety among the highest officials, but Spartokos VII used the incident as a pretext to further consolidate his power, strengthening internal security within the palace.
In this same period, the emperor also undertook efforts to restore the cultural and intellectual life of the empire. In 1210 AD, he traveled to the university in Chersonesus to assess the impact of the plague on the state’s scholarly and cultural institutions.
This visit allowed him to deepen his own knowledge of military strategy and governance while also signaling that, despite the health crisis, the empire would not neglect its intellectual heritage. Meetings with scholars and the analysis of damage caused by the plague led to the development of new administrative solutions that would aid future reconstruction and progress.
In 1211 AD, Spartokos VII strengthened his dynastic ties by marrying Jezebel, and a year later, their union produced a second son, named Spartokos.
Unfortunately, in 1213 AD, Jezebel died due to complications in childbirth while delivering another son, Theodoros. This loss was yet another tragic event in the young emperor’s life, leaving a lasting mark on the memory of the court and his subjects.
By the end of 1215 AD, Emperor Spartokos VII took Biote Hyrcanis, a distant relative, as his wife, which led to a serious conflict between him and the High Priest of the Imperial Cult, Naseeruddin.
The priest accused the emperor of disrespecting the memory of his previous wives and violating the principles of faith in Omono, the one true god. In his view, remarrying so soon after the deaths of his former wives—especially to a woman closely related to the dynasty—could be seen as an act of impurity and disregard for divine laws.
The conflict threatened to escalate, as the imperial religion played a crucial role in legitimizing the emperor’s rule, and an open confrontation with the clergy could endanger the stability of Spartokos VII’s reign.
Aware of the gravity of the situation, the emperor opted for a diplomatic solution. Utilizing the wealth of the imperial treasury, he made a generous donation to the Imperial Church, allocating significant funds for temple restoration, priestly support, and the organization of new ceremonies in honor of Omono. This gesture helped ease tensions and persuaded the High Priest Naseeruddin to adopt a more conciliatory stance.
At the beginning of 1216 AD, Emperor Spartokos VII announced the betrothal of his eldest son and heir, Gorgippos, to Maria, the daughter of Akrotatos, the influential governor of Armeniakos. This marriage was intended to secure Akrotatos’s loyalty to the crown and provide the future emperor with a strong foundation in the powerful Hyrcanis-Selb family.
In the summer of 1216 AD, an embassy from the Great Khan Temujin arrived at the imperial court in Satyri, bearing demands for the complete submission of the Tauric Empire to Mongol rule. Spartokos VII was expected to acknowledge the Great Khan’s suzerainty, agree to pay tribute, and formally place the empire’s lands under Mongol jurisdiction.
The emperor perceived this proposal as an extreme insult and an attempt to humiliate his mighty empire. Spartokos VII not only rejected the demands but also ordered the execution of the Mongol envoys, sending their severed heads back to Temujin as a gesture of utter contempt. This was an open act of war—one that would not go unanswered.
Before the end of 1216, Mongol forces crossed the eastern borders of the Tauric Empire, launching a devastating invasion. The Mongol hordes burned many border settlements and captured several fortified outposts, using their mobility and excellent coordination in attacks.
The imperial army, initially caught off guard by the enemy’s speed, quickly regrouped and launched retaliatory operations in 1217. Elite horse archers and the heavily armored cataphract cavalry clashed with the Mongol nomads, while fortified cities successfully repelled sieges.
Spartokos VII, known for both his strategic skills and personal bravery in battle, personally led the imperial army against the Mongols during their invasion of the empire. In one of the smaller skirmishes, the emperor faced a Mongol warrior named Badai, renowned for his exceptional combat prowess.
Spartokos VII, wielding his favored war hammer, crushed his opponent’s skull with a single mighty blow, boosting the morale of his soldiers and proving that the ruler of Tauris not only commanded from the rear but also fought on the front lines.
At the battle of Sara in 1218 AD, where the imperial army confronted the main Mongol forces. During the fight, Nikagor, one of Spartokos’ loyal commanders, fell, further fueling the emperor’s determination. Enraged by the death of his general, Spartokos VII personally hunted down Koncek, the warrior responsible for the act, and struck him down, depriving the Mongols of a key leader.
After two years of grueling warfare, neither side had secured a decisive victory, and harsh winter conditions combined with stretched supply lines forced the Mongols to withdraw. The first Mongol invasion did not bring about the fall of the empire but served as a warning of future campaigns to come.
In 1219 AD, Spartokos VII, celebrating his victory over the Mongols, organized a grand triumphal procession in the empire’s capital, Satyri. The streets were filled with citizens cheering for the emperor and his victorious legions. The parade was led by heralds proclaiming the ruler’s glory, followed by heavily armored cataphracts and then the imperial infantry regiments.
At the head of the procession rode Spartokos VII himself, clad in gilded armor and accompanied by his closest commanders. Among the war trophies on display were captured Mongol banners, seized weaponry, and the severed head of Koncek, symbolizing the triumph over the invaders.
After the triumphal march, the emperor presided over a grand ceremony at the hippodrome, where games were held in honor of the gods and the ancestors of the Hyrcanis dynasty. Chariot races, gladiatorial combat, and military demonstrations showcased the might of the imperial army. The climax of the celebrations was the offering of sacrifices and a tithe of war spoils in the temples to honor past emperors, ensuring the continued prosperity of Tauris.
Standing before the gathered crowd at the temple of Omono, Spartokos VII thanked his ancestors for victory, vowing that the empire would never bow before its enemies. This triumph not only solidified his position as ruler but also reinforced the unity and determination of the empire in the face of threats.
A late 14th century painting depicting a message for help from Queen Ettela - (Bing)
On December 12, 1219 AD, an envoy from Queen Ettela arrived in Satyri, pleading for support against the crusaders. For nearly two decades, these lands had been the site of bloody conflict, with fortresses and cities falling to the Latin armies. Many rulers who followed Omono had previously aided Ettela, but their forces were insufficient to halt the crusaders’ advance.
As the defender of the Omono faith and hegemon of the eastern world, the emperor could not allow Pravelitana, the kingdom of his co-religionists, to fall to the western invaders. Spartokos VII resolved to personally lead a grand army to aid his allies. At the beginning of 1220, the emperor set out at the head of a formidable 30,000-strong army, composed of elite imperial legions, heavily armored cataphract cavalry, and mounted archers.
This war lasted until early 1221 AD, but before its conclusion, the emperor led his forces southward, where he secured a decisive victory over the crusaders at the Battle of Zlatibor. This engagement, fought in difficult mountainous terrain, proved crucial to the campaign’s outcome.
Following his victory at Zlatibor, Spartokos VII marched his army onto the Italian Peninsula, initiating an offensive aimed at capturing Rome. Through a series of intense military operations, including brutal sieges and determined assaults on fortified positions, the imperial legions ultimately stormed the city, capturing Rome by the end of 1220 AD.
With the conquest of Rome and his military triumph, Pope Nikolaus III was forced to accept the emperor’s demands to end the war. To formalize the peace, the pope issued a bull officially terminating the crusade.
This diplomatic act not only symbolized the emperor’s victory but also reshaped relations between the empire and western religious institutions, as Spartokos VII demanded that Nikolaus III acknowledge the Imperial Faith as a doctrine equal and fraternal to Christianity in the treaty.
In 1223 AD, news of another impending Mongol invasion reached the Tauric Empire, as their forces moved toward the empire’s northern provinces.
A mid-14th century fresco depicting the Mongol invasion of the empire - (Bing)
This conflict, lasting until 1226 AD, caused massive devastation in the affected regions, weakening local administration and infrastructure. Fueled by Temujin’s ambitions, the Mongol invasion posed yet another challenge to imperial authorities, who had to face the growing might of the eastern aggressor.
In response to the threat, Spartokos VII once again personally led the imperial army, culminating in one of the most crucial battles of the invasion at Ileksoi Gorodok. In this decisive confrontation, his forces crushed the Mongol contingent led by one of Temujin’s sons. Thanks to superior strategy, discipline, and bravery, Spartokos VII managed to break the enemy’s defenses, significantly weakening the Mongol offensive along the empire’s northern borders.
Despite the victory at Ileksoi Gorodok, the war did not conclude with a definitive triumph. The imperial armies had merely repelled the invasion, leaving the region in ruins and uncertainty lingering over the future of the frontier.
By late 1227, an outbreak of typhus erupted in the imperial capital, Satyri, and across the Tauric Peninsula. The disease spread rapidly among the population, decimating both urban residents and military garrisons.
Spartokos VII, already weakened by a chronic illness and wounds sustained during a bear hunt, was unable to overcome the deterioration of his health. Despite the efforts of court physicians, his condition worsened with each passing day. In early 1228, the emperor passed away, marking the end of a reign filled with wars and challenges, forever cementing his legacy as a warrior and defender of the empire’s borders.
Following the death of Spartokos VII, the imperial throne passed to his eighteen-year-old son, Gorgippos III. Young and inexperienced, he faced a difficult situation, inheriting both his father’s glory and the ongoing struggles shaking the empire.
The epidemic continued to claim lives, while the northern provinces were still recovering from the Mongol invasions. The new emperor had to quickly secure the support of the elites and military commanders to maintain the state’s stability and prevent chaos from threatening his reign.
Gorgippos III ascended the throne at a young age, but despite being only eighteen, he was well-prepared to rule. His upbringing at the imperial court made him a master of politics and intrigue, allowing him to skillfully navigate the complex web of alliances and rivalries among the empire’s powerful noble families.
His sociable nature and ability to inspire loyalty among courtiers and officials made him an effective ruler, yet also an unpredictable one. His inner ambition and vengeful tendencies led him to ruthlessly eliminate opponents, never hesitating to use betrayal or manipulation if it served his goals.
His unique appearance, caused by albinism, set him apart from his predecessors and became the source of numerous legends and superstitions among both the people and the court. Some saw him as a chosen one of the gods, while others considered him an omen of a curse upon the empire. Aware of these perceptions, Gorgippos III carefully crafted his image, using an aura of mystery and supernatural destiny to command both respect and fear.
At the time of Gorgippos III's accession in 1228 AD, the empire was in a state of internal instability. Years of war and epidemics had weakened central authority, and the nobility—who had long ruled the provinces on behalf of strong emperors—saw an opportunity to gain greater freedoms under the young ruler.
The most powerful among them was the governor of Thrace, Empedocles, who, seeking to strengthen his position, supported the claim to the throne of Antiochos, a distant relative of the emperor. Driven by ambition and a desire to curb imperial power, Empedocles sent an ultimatum to Gorgippos III in the summer of 1229 AD, demanding his abdication in favor of Antiochos.
Gorgippos III had no intention of yielding to the growing opposition. He rejected Empedocles’ demands, leading to open conflict. In the autumn of 1229 AD, the rebel forces, supported by local noble militias, marched on Satyria, hoping for a swift capture of the capital and the emperor’s deposition.
However, Gorgippos III anticipated this move and launched an extensive diplomatic campaign, securing the support of loyal noble families and key military commanders. At the same time, he ordered the fortification of the capital and gathered around him an elite imperial guard and heavily armed infantry, upon whom he could rely in the coming battles.
The civil war, which began in 1229 AD, lasted nearly a decade, consuming vast imperial resources and causing widespread devastation. The first major battle of the conflict was fought at Kerkinitis on the Tauric Peninsula, where the emperor’s loyalist forces, numbering 30,000 troops, clashed with a 24,000-strong rebel army.
Despite the rebels’ good organization, the emperor personally led his forces, leveraging his numerical advantage and the experience of his commanders. Through brilliant leadership and the decisive role of the imperial heavy infantry and cataphracts, he secured victory, forcing the enemy remnants to retreat.
However, though the Battle of Kerkinitis was a triumph, it did not end the war—the fighting dragged on for years, with the rebellious nobles continuing to pose a serious threat to the stability of the empire.
As the civil war raged, the empire faced an even greater challenge. In 1233 AD, the Mongol Empire, under the leadership of Temujin, once again turned its gaze toward imperial lands.
By this time, the Mongol Khan ruled vast territories stretching from the eastern borders of the empire to the Pacific coast. Seeing the empire’s internal struggles as an opportunity, he launched a massive invasion.
The Mongol invasion forced Gorgippos III to shift priorities—from crushing the rebels entirely, he now had to focus on defending the empire’s borders against an external threat. The campaign against the Mongols lasted from 1233 to 1236 AD and was particularly difficult for the imperial army.
Despite fighting on two fronts, Gorgippos III demonstrated strategic brilliance, effectively organizing the defense of key cities and fortresses. By skillfully deploying mounted archers and heavy imperial cavalry, he not only halted the Mongol advance but also inflicted significant losses in a series of battles.
In 1236 AD, unable to achieve a victory, the Mongols were forced to withdraw. This success greatly enhanced the emperor’s authority, though the civil war persisted and would continue to take a heavy toll on the state.
In 1236 AD, as the empire struggled with both the devastating civil war and the Mongol invasion, the emperor’s firstborn son, Artemidoros, was born. His birth in such turbulent times carried symbolic significance, offering hope for the future amid chaos and destruction.
Empress Maria gave birth to the child within the secure walls of the capital, while Gorgippos III remained on the front lines, personally commanding the imperial forces. The news of Artemidoros’ birth quickly spread throughout the empire, boosting the morale of loyalists and reaffirming the continuity of the imperial dynasty.
The years 1236–1239 AD were marked by intense military efforts to finally crush the rebellious nobles. After years of grueling warfare, Gorgippos III decided to eradicate the last remnants of aristocratic opposition once and for all.
His campaign was ruthless—rebel strongholds were systematically destroyed, traitors’ lands confiscated, and their armies shattered in successive battles.
The decisive moment of the conflict came on July 11, 1238 AD, at the Battle of Abkhazia. There, the emperor’s 35,000-strong army clashed with a 22,000-strong rebel force.
The battle ended in an overwhelming victory for Gorgippos III. His battle-hardened veterans, forged in conflicts against both the Mongols and internal enemies, annihilated the rebel forces. It turned into a one-sided slaughter—imperial troops showed no mercy to their foes.
Among the dead were nearly all the rebel commanders, including their leader, Empedocles, whose death symbolized the downfall of the aristocratic faction. The final defeat of the rebels sealed the fate of the civil war, allowing Gorgippos III to finally declare the conflict over.
Following his victory, the emperor returned to the capital, where he organized a grand triumph. On the imperial hippodrome, the fate of traitors was publicly displayed—captives were humiliated, and many were executed.
A particular act of vengeance was the public execution of Hieronymos, governor of Cilicia and one of the last surviving rebel leaders. His death served as a stark warning to any who might challenge the emperor’s authority in the future.
Gorgippos III’s triumph not only reinforced his power but also reestablished the unity of the empire, which, after years of war, could finally enter a period of stabilization.
The years 1236–1240 AD were a period of reconstruction and stabilization for the empire under the rule of Gorgippos III. After a decade of devastating internal conflicts and Mongol invasions, the emperor focused on restoring order and strengthening the economy.
A key move was the negotiation of favorable trade treaties with Egypt and Sicily, which ensured a steady supply of grain for the empire, stabilizing the food situation in war-torn provinces.
Thanks to these agreements, the rebuilding of cities and infrastructure progressed more rapidly, and the imperial treasury began to fill once again as trade revived.
This period was not only one of economic growth—Gorgippos III ruthlessly eliminated any potential political opponents who could threaten his rule. Known for his cunning and talent for intrigue, the ruler orchestrated a series of assassinations aimed at eliminating the remnants of the rebel faction.
In 1237 AD, in a distant eastern kingdom, Antiochos Hyrcanis was tracked down and executed after fleeing the empire following the defeat of the civil war. His death was a clear message that the emperor’s reach extended beyond the borders of his realm and that no one was safe if they had ever opposed imperial authority.
Internal opponents were not spared either—in 1239 AD, by order of Gorgippos III, Plistarchus, an influential governor who had publicly expressed dissatisfaction with the brutal purges carried out by the emperor after the civil war, was assassinated.
His death, though officially declared an unfortunate accident, served as a stark warning to other nobles. As a result, imperial power was further consolidated, and all opposition was effectively silenced.
The years 1240–1242 AD saw diplomatic efforts to secure peace with the Mongols. By then, Temujin was aging and saw benefits in normalizing relations with the empire.
As a result, a dynastic alliance was forged—Gorgippos III’s cousin, Artemisia, married Temujin’s son, Bargkhujin, while the emperor’s heir, Artemidoros, was betrothed to the Great Khan’s daughter, Ulujin. These political marriages ended Mongol raids and strengthened ties between the two powers.
One of his successes was imposing tribute on Kitzes I, the Emperor of Volga-Ural, who acknowledged Tauris' suzerainty in exchange for guarantees of protection against other threats, including potential Mongol expansion.
A similar fate befell Queen Arystone I, the ruler of Savacid, who agreed to pay tribute to the empire in order to secure her throne and maintain favorable trade relations.
In the year 1243 AD, Emperor Gorgippos III, convinced of his uniqueness and destined for great deeds, decided to embark on an ambitious campaign of conquest. His goal was to expand the empire’s borders and solidify its dominance in the region.
At that time, the Tauric Empire had entered a period of stabilized relations with the Mongols, and the subjugation of tributary states allowed the emperor to focus on expansion. This decision was also driven by his ambition and his desire to match the legendary conquerors of the past.
The first targets of his campaign were the principalities of Armenia and Diyarbakr. Between 1244 and 1250 AD, the imperial armies systematically conquered these lands, as the resistance of local rulers proved insufficient against the well-trained Tauric legions.
The war for Diyarbakr was particularly fierce, lasting from 1248 to 1250 AD and culminating in the Battle of Tatvan.
Despite suffering from a severe illness that weakened him, the emperor personally led his troops and achieved a spectacular victory. The defeat of his opponents secured his control over the region and opened the path for further conquests.
Unsatisfied with his previous successes, in 1253 AD, Gorgippos III decided to launch an attack on Antioch, seeking to bring the strategic Levantine territories under his rule.
The climax of the war was the Battle of Baqirda, fought on December 20, 1255 AD.
During the battle, the emperor became separated from his personal guard and was surrounded by enemies. Despite a heroic fight, he was slain on the battlefield, and his death sent shockwaves through the empire.
Following the death of Gorgippos III in 1256 AD, his eldest son, Artemidoros V, was crowned the new emperor. The young ruler faced the daunting task of maintaining the vast empire that his father had expanded. The death of Gorgippos III marked the end of an era of relentless expansion and ushered in a new chapter in Tauric history, filled with challenges related to consolidating conquered lands and ensuring internal stability.
Artemidoros V ascended the throne in 1256 AD following the tragic death of his father, Gorgippos III. Although raised in a military tradition, the new emperor did not share his father’s ambitions for conquest. He was a sociable and gracious ruler, but above all, a skilled diplomat who sought to maintain the unity of the empire.
His marriage to Ulujin, the youngest daughter of Temujin, strengthened the alliance with the Mongols, while the birth of two sons, Gorgippos and Artemidoros, ensured a stable succession. Understanding that further wars could weaken the empire, the new emperor decided to end his father's ongoing conflict by signing a peace treaty with the Kingdom of Savacid.
Artemidoros V also aimed to preserve internal peace within the empire. A growing number of nobles questioned the emperor’s hegemony, demanding greater autonomy and a reduction of the court’s influence in Satyri over the provinces. The emperor carefully balanced loyalty and concessions, knowing that the empire’s future depended on internal stability. He sought to use his diplomatic skills to maintain unity among the empire’s internal factions.
The first years of Artemidoros V’s reign were marked by efforts to consolidate his power and gain the support of both the people and the aristocracy. In 1257 AD, he organized a grand chariot race in the capital, attracting crowds of citizens and nobles alike.
The event was lavish—adorned with extravagant decorations, numerous prizes, and spectacular performances. It was a clear signal that the new ruler sought to win the favor of society while also reviving imperial traditions, in which games were an important element of internal politics.
A year later, in 1258 AD, Artemidoros V visited the university in Pantikapaion, a gesture of support for the advancement of science and education. This was not merely an act of patronage but also a demonstration of his own intellectual aspirations.
During his visit, the emperor engaged in philosophical and political debates, emphasizing that he was not just a warrior or administrator, but a ruler who valued knowledge. This move enhanced his prestige among scholars and the intellectual elite, as well as among nobles who saw in him not just a pragmatist but a leader open to progress.
Between 1258 and 1260 AD, the emperor focused on dynastic politics, forging strategic alliances through the marriages of his family members. His younger sister, Cleo, was betrothed to Beka, the grandson of Kitezes I, ruler of Volga-Ural, a newly reunited state formed in response to the Mongol threat. Artemidoros hoped this alliance would maintain regional stability and prevent potential Mongol claims.
Similarly, his cousin Melaena married Gaedres, the grandson of the governor of Tyras, to secure the loyalty of one of the empire’s key provinces. In this way, the emperor skillfully built a network of political connections, strengthening his position both domestically and internationally.
By the end of 1260 AD, the heir to the Tauric Empire, Gorgippos, was betrothed to Catia, the daughter of Tectomaros I, ruler of the Kingdom of Italy. This was a major political event, as Italy’s rulers, who styled themselves as emperors and considered themselves the rightful successors of the ancient Roman Empire, remained a formidable power in Western Europe.
The dynastic alliance between the Tauric Empire and Italy was intended not only to strengthen relations between the two great monarchies but also to ensure stable ties with the Papacy, which lay within the Italian kingdom’s territory. This was crucial for maintaining the balance of power in Europe and solidifying Gorgippos’s position as the future ruler.
In 1261 AD, another Mongol delegation arrived at the capital, proposing to further strengthen ties between Temujin’s empire and the Tauric Empire. In recent years, the Mongols had significantly expanded their dominion, conquering northern and central China, making their state one of the largest empires in history.
Though the southern kingdoms of Shu, Luodian, and Annam still resisted Mongol dominance, the eastern empire’s power was undeniable. Recognizing the strength of his own realm, the Khan of Khans sought to renew dynastic and trade relations with the Tauric Empire, seeing an opportunity for stability and continued expansion of influence.
The Mongol delegation presented Emperor Artemidoros V with a proposal for further dynastic marriages. Temujin desired his granddaughter, Sorkhaghatani, to marry Spartokos Hyrcanis, a cousin of the emperor, while his grandson, Sogetei, was to wed Philainis Hyrcanis, also a cousin of the ruler.
These alliances aimed not only to strengthen ties between the two great powers but also to ensure mutual loyalty and peaceful coexistence. This was especially important for the Tauric Empire, whose eastern and northern provinces were still recovering from previous Mongol invasions.
Artemidoros V, aware of the delicate balance of power and the need for stability, approved the Mongol ruler’s proposal. He agreed to both marriages, seeing them as a way to secure the borders and normalize relations with a formidable neighbor. Furthermore, the emperor recognized the benefits of trade agreements, which could aid in rebuilding the economy after years of war.
In 1262 AD, one of the most daring acts of defiance against imperial authority occurred when Sophytes, the grand governor of Thessalonica, stole a priceless imperial manuscript. His motives were unclear—being a member of the faction advocating for greater autonomy among regional nobles, he may have viewed the theft as a symbolic act of resistance against centralized imperial rule.
However, this act was a direct challenge to the authority of Artemidoros V, who could not allow such an insult to go unanswered. Imperial troops were dispatched to Thessalonica with orders to capture and punish Sophytes, but their mission failed—the governor refused to surrender the treasure and evaded arrest.
The failed imperial intervention quickly escalated into open conflict. Realizing that the emperor would not let the matter rest, Sophytes initiated a rebellion, rallying allies among the nobles seeking to weaken central power.
By the end of 1262 AD, Thessalonica and several other cities had fallen under rebel control, turning the uprising into a nationwide crisis. The period of relative stability and peace that Artemidoros V had worked to maintain since the beginning of his reign had come to an end, and the empire now faced a new internal threat.
The civil war ignited by Sophytes in 1262 AD ravaged the empire’s southern territories for three years, particularly Anatolia and Greece, where local governors had long sought greater autonomy.
The fighting was exceptionally brutal—cities and villages changed hands multiple times, and the chaos and destruction weakened both the economy and the morale of the populace. Initially attempting negotiations, Emperor Artemidoros V soon realized that only total victory would allow him to retain control over the empire. His army methodically reclaimed lost regions, forcing the rebels into retreat.
The decisive battle took place on July 12, 1265 AD, at Tskhinvali, where the imperial army of 25,000 soldiers clashed with the rebel force of 16,000. Despite fierce resistance, the rebels could not match the superior training and equipment of the imperial legions.
After hours of battle, Sophytes’s forces were shattered, and his allies forced into retreat. This victory sealed the war’s outcome—without their leader and resources, the southern governors began surrendering one by one, pledging loyalty to Artemidoros V and bringing the civil war to an end.
In August 1265 AD, a smallpox epidemic erupted in Anatolia, swiftly spreading across the Black Sea region, bringing death and devastation. The recent civil war had only exacerbated the crisis—an exhausted population and a destabilized administration created ideal conditions for the disease.
By early 1266 AD, smallpox reached the Tauric Peninsula, and even the imperial palace was not spared. The emperor’s second son, Artemidoros the Younger, died from complications, while the heir, Gorgippos, was also infected and suffered from severe fever.
Tragically, Emperor Artemidoros V contracted the disease while tending to his sons and succumbed after weeks of illness. His death was a devastating blow to the empire, plunging it into mourning and chaos.
Fresco depicting the epidemic of Artemidoros Pox, late 14th century - (Bing)
The epidemic, which claimed the emperor’s life and thousands of his subjects, became known as the "Artemidoros Pox"—a tragic legacy of a ruler who, despite his efforts, could not protect his people or his family. His young son, Gorgippos IV, inherited the throne, but his critical condition left the empire’s future uncertain, and the nobility began maneuvering for power in the looming crisis.
Gorgippos IV inherited the throne under dramatic circumstances following the death of his father, Artemidoros V, who fell victim to a raging smallpox epidemic. However, the young emperor himself, only eleven years old, was also battling the disease. Infected and weakened, he spent long weeks confined to the palace chambers, fighting for his life.
Before his illness, Gorgippos IV had shown traits reminiscent of his father—he was sociable, generous, but also ambitious and aware of the great responsibility that awaited him as the future ruler. Now, however, his fate, along with that of the entire Tauric Empire, remained uncertain.
In the face of the crisis, his mother, Empress Ulujin, took control of the government as regent during her son’s illness. She was a strong-willed woman with significant political acumen, and her lineage from the Mongol house of Temujin further strengthened her authority.
As regent, she sought to maintain stability in the empire, preventing the powerful nobles from exploiting the crisis for their own gain. She introduced strict measures to curb the further spread of the plague, though her efforts often met resistance from the population and aristocracy, who were reluctant to submit to quarantines and other restrictions.
Fresco depicting the Artemidoros Pox, late 15th century – (Bing)
Meanwhile, the epidemic continued to ravage the Tauric Peninsula, Anatolia, and the Black Sea region. Cities and villages were decimated, trade nearly ceased, and the streets of the capital were filled with funeral processions.
Under these dire circumstances, Gorgippos IV’s reign began in chaos and death, and his future depended on whether he could overcome the disease and assume real power over an empire in crisis. Many eyes were fixed on the imperial palace, where it remained uncertain whether the young ruler would survive to see his own coronation.
As young Emperor Gorgippos IV battled smallpox and the court was thrown into turmoil following the death of his father, Artemidoros V, the Varangian Guard decided to exercise their traditional privilege—the removal of treasures from the imperial treasury.
This custom, dating back to the early reign of the Hyrcanis dynasty, dictated that the Varangian guards, who served as the emperor's elite protectors, considered the death of a reigning ruler as a signal to secure part of the empire’s wealth for themselves.
Under the cover of night, chests filled with gold, jewels, and precious relics were carried out of the imperial treasury and hidden by the Varangians in private estates or sent beyond the capital.
Some members of the Varangian Guard saw this as an opportunity for personal enrichment and influence, while others sought to safeguard themselves against further unrest. At a time when the empire was weakened by the plague and its new ruler was barely clinging to life, this act not only undermined the authority of the crown but also exposed the deeply ingrained corruption and ruthlessness of the ruling elite.
In the wake of the crisis that gripped the empire after the death of Artemidoros V and the devastating epidemic, Regent Ulujin decided to secure her own future and that of her surviving children by strengthening ties with the Mongol Empire.
Knowing that her brother, Albold I, had ascended the throne after their father's death, Ulujin saw an opportunity to solidify their alliance. Sending a diplomatic mission to Karakorum, the empress-regent proposed an arranged marriage between her youngest son, Antiochos, and Oghul, the half-sister of Albold I. This was a symbolic gesture, intended not only to reinforce family bonds but also to ensure stability along the empire's eastern borders.
Albold I, eager to maintain peace and influence in Tauris, enthusiastically accepted the proposal. The marriage was meant to highlight the close ties between the two dynasties and safeguard Mongolia’s interests in the region. Through this agreement, Ulujin not only prevented potential Mongol incursions but also secured the backing of a powerful ally in her struggle against the empire’s internal troubles. The conclusion of this treaty was one of the greatest political achievements of the empress-regent, who demonstrated remarkable skill and foresight in these difficult times.
Despite the efforts of physicians and caretakers, young Emperor Gorgippos IV was unable to overcome the deadly disease. The smallpox, which had weakened him from the moment he ascended the throne, ultimately claimed his life after just a few weeks of rule. His death plunged the capital into mourning, while the nobility grew increasingly anxious about the empire’s future. The empire was now in crisis, as the next ruler was to be the five-year-old Antiochos, the youngest son of Artemidoros V.
Regent Ulujin, left with no other choice, declared Antiochos the new emperor, while effectively assuming full control in his name. Given the unstable political climate and the nation’s exhaustion from the epidemic, her authority became crucial for the empire’s survival.
Dissatisfaction among the nobility, who sought to further weaken the central government, continued to grow, but with the support of her Mongol allies, Ulujin was able to maintain control—for now. The reign of Antiochos promised to be a period full of challenges, during which his mother would play a decisive role in shaping the fate of the empire.
The ascension of the young Antiochos III to the throne in May 1267 AD meant that the regency over the empire fell to his mother, Ulujin. As the widow of Artemidoros V and the sister of the then-ruler of the Mongol Empire, Albold I, Ulujin enjoyed strong support from her Mongol allies as well as from many factions within the empire.
However, the political situation in the country was tense—numerous factions vied for power, and some nobles were unwilling to passively accept the rule of a regent and a minor emperor.
One of the first attempts to undermine Antiochos III's rule came in the form of a conspiracy against his life. Dzaeraes, the master of spies who enjoyed the full trust of the regent, uncovered a plot aimed at assassinating the young emperor. The investigation quickly revealed that the mastermind behind the attempt was the governor of Tyras, Philopoemenos, one of the more ambitious commanders who sought to overthrow the dynasty and seize the throne.
The plan involved an assassination attempt on the emperor during a religious ceremony. However, thanks to the vigilance of Dzaeraes’ agents, the assassins were captured before they could act. Philopoemenos was arrested and publicly executed as a warning to other potential conspirators.
However, the threats against the young emperor did not come from just one source. Another attempt to destabilize his rule took place in the capital, where Timarchos, the governor of Paphlagonia, sought to stage a palace coup. With significant resources and the support of a portion of the military, he attempted to seize the imperial palace and imprison the regent and her son.
The conspirators hoped for a swift takeover, but the loyal palace guards, along with Dzaeraes' keen intelligence network, thwarted the coup. Timarchos was captured and exiled to a distant monastery, where he was to spend the rest of his life in isolation.
The empire, weakened by plague, wars, and internal unrest, remained unstable. As regent, Ulujin had to demonstrate not only political skill but also decisive action against conspirators. Thanks to her efforts and the trusted master of spies, her son maintained relatively firm control over the empire during the early years of his reign until 1270 AD.
In mid-1270 AD, the internal situation within the empire once again deteriorated. Despite the regent Ulujin’s previous successes in suppressing conspiracies, a group of nobles began openly questioning her rule. Among them was Maximos, the Grand Governor of Bithynia, who managed to unite a broad coalition of aristocrats dissatisfied with the centralization of power.
Seeing the still young age of Antiochos III and the weakened court after recent intrigues, they decided to attempt a change on the throne. Maximos, acting on behalf of the rebels, issued an ultimatum to the regent, demanding that power be transferred to Antigonos, a distant cousin of the young emperor, who was perceived as more susceptible to influence and favorable to the noble faction.
Regent Ulujin, aware of the consequences of yielding to the nobility, firmly rejected Maximos’ ultimatum. In a letter addressed to the rebellious governor, she emphasized that Antiochos III was the rightful emperor and that the attempt to place Antigonos on the throne was an act of treason against the dynasty and the empire.
The regent’s response enraged the rebels, who realized they had no choice but to forcibly overthrow the young emperor’s rule. Thus, at the end of 1270 AD, a new civil war broke out, with the fate of the dynasty at stake.
The first battles took place in Bithynia, where Maximos gathered his supporters and began marching through Anatolia towards the Tauric Peninsula. At the same time, other rebellious governors took up arms in Tyras and the western frontiers of the empire, aiming to weaken the forces loyal to Antiochos III.
The imperial court in Satyri quickly responded by mobilizing troops under experienced generals. Fearing the rebels’ numerical advantage, Ulujin also initiated negotiations with her brother, Albold I, hoping for military support in defending her son’s throne. The civil war engulfed a significant portion of the empire, and the conflict would prove to be one of the most devastating in its history.
The first major battle of the civil war took place at Maran in the early morning of March 20, 1271. The imperial legions, commanded by General Alexios Stratonikas, took positions on the hills overlooking the plains through which the rebel forces were marching.
The strategic terrain allowed the forces loyal to Antiochos III to effectively use archers and siege engines, which rained projectiles upon the enemy before they could engage in direct combat.
Maximos, leading the rebels, ordered a forced march uphill, hoping to break through the imperial positions. However, the steep slopes and relentless bombardment severely weakened the momentum of his assault.
Seeing the enemy’s exhaustion, Stratonikas ordered the heavy cavalry to strike the rebels' flanks, trapping them in a deadly encirclement. Under the pressure of the imperial legions and cavalry, Maximos’ lines began to collapse, soon turning into a chaotic retreat. A key moment was the death of one of the rebel commanders, the governor of Tyras, Leosthenes, who was slain by a spear during the retreat, further deepening the panic among his troops.
After hours of fierce fighting, victory was secured for the imperial forces—the rebels were shattered, and the remnants fled eastward. The Battle of Maran proved to be a triumph for the forces loyal to Antiochos III, giving the regent Ulujin a temporary advantage in the civil war.
In the summer of 1274 AD, after years of a devastating civil war, the rebels decided to make one final desperate attempt to seize the capital and overthrow the young emperor Antiochos III. Their plan involved landing on the Tauric Peninsula and marching swiftly toward the capital before the imperial forces could react. In the latter half of July, approximately 40,000 rebel troops, led by the Grand Governor Kurus, landed near Chersonesus. Their intentions, however, did not go unnoticed—Regent Ulujin, thanks to her efficient spy network, was aware of the enemy’s plans and had managed to gather a strong army in the region.
The battle unfolded on August 3, 1274, on the plains surrounding Chersonesus. The imperial forces, numbering around 55,000 men, held a numerical advantage, as well as superior training and morale, especially after their previous victories.
At the decisive moment of the battle, when the center of the rebel forces began to crumble under the onslaught of the legions, the imperial commander Markos ordered an attack by his elite cataphract guard. The heavily armored cavalry charged with full force, breaking through the weakened rebel lines and spreading chaos and panic.
Seeing their imminent defeat, Kurus, the rebel governor, attempted to rally his forces for a retreat but was surrounded and killed by imperial archers. His death completely shattered the morale of the rebels, who began fleeing in disarray toward their ships.
After a full day of brutal fighting, the battle ended in a decisive victory for the imperial forces. The remnants of the rebels were scattered, their remaining forces either captured or annihilated. With this, the civil war came to an end, and the rule of Antiochos III was finally secured.
Triumphant over the rebels, Regent Ulujin ordered severe punishments for those who had betrayed the emperor—many were executed, and their estates were confiscated for the imperial treasury.
At the end of 1276 AD, Emperor Antiochos III reached adulthood, officially assuming full power after years of regency under his mother. His youth had coincided with the turbulent period of civil war, forcing him to undergo intensive education in both statecraft and military strategy.
From an early age, his mother and the empire's most distinguished commanders emphasized his training in combat, strategy, and army leadership. Under the guidance of the finest tutors and master swordsmen, the young ruler honed his skills in weaponry, horseback riding, and military tactics—an essential foundation for a future leader of an empire built on military strength.
Thanks to his rigorous upbringing and relentless training, Antiochos III grew into an exceptional warrior and commander. He was not only capable of directing his armies from the palace but also personally leading them on the battlefield.
Upon taking full control of the empire, Antiochos III sought not only to consolidate his position as a sovereign ruler but also to win the favor of the people after years of devastating civil war. In 1277 AD, he organized grand chariot races in the capital, reviving ancient imperial traditions.
This grand spectacle, full of splendor and excitement, attracted massive crowds eager for entertainment and stability after the tumultuous years of conflict. Personally attending the opening ceremonies and award distribution, Antiochos III endeared himself to the populace, portraying himself as both a ruler close to his subjects and a strong, decisive leader.
His actions aimed to restore a sense of unity and pride among the empire’s citizens, who had been divided and weakened by the prolonged internal strife.
However, popularity alone was not enough to rebuild the empire. Aware of the economic hardships caused by years of conflict, Antiochos III focused on reforms aimed at restoring trade and financial stability.
He ordered the reconstruction of war-torn cities and trade routes, introduced tax reliefs for merchants and craftsmen to revitalize the economy, and supported the development of ports along the Black and Mediterranean Seas, recognizing maritime trade as crucial to the empire’s prosperity. To oversee these efforts personally, he conducted inspections of the damage and assessed necessary reconstruction projects.
He also invested in infrastructure, commissioning the construction and repair of roads that had suffered during the recent conflicts. Additionally, he engaged in diplomatic talks with neighboring states to secure advantageous trade agreements, seeking to restore the empire’s status as a major regional power.
Between 1276 and 1280 AD, in his pursuit of strengthening his rule and ensuring internal stability, Antiochos III forged strategic dynastic alliances. One of the most significant was the betrothal of his half-sister Philista, the natural daughter of Ulujin, conceived after the death of Artemidoros V.
Her hand was given to Buias, the new Grand Governor of Borysthenia, securing the loyalty of this crucial province and strengthening ties between the imperial family and the powerful aristocracy of the empire. This alliance not only solidified the emperor’s position but also demonstrated his pragmatic approach to governance, in which skillful dynastic politics played a key role.
Meanwhile, a major dynastic event was unfolding on the international stage. The young emperor had originally been betrothed to Oghul, the daughter of the great Temujin and his own cousin, as part of a planned alliance between the imperial dynasty and the Mongol Empire.
However, in 1280 AD, just before her arrival in the capital, news arrived of her unexpected death. Oghul’s passing shocked the court, but the Mongol dynasty, eager to maintain the alliance, proposed another candidate for the emperor’s bride.
Instead of Oghul, Batulun—daughter of Ulujin’s brother and a close relative of Antiochos III—arrived in the Tauric capital. This marriage further cemented ties between the empire and the Mongol realm, ensuring political stability for the years to come.
The union between Antiochos III and Batulun soon produced an heir to the throne. In 1281 AD, their son was born and named Artemidoros, in honor of his late grandfather. The birth of the child was a momentous event at court and across the empire, securing dynastic continuity and fostering hope for lasting stability after years of turmoil.
The year 1282 AD became another great test for the Tauric Empire. As the realm was slowly recovering from the devastation of civil wars and political unrest, a sudden outbreak of typhus struck at its very heart.
The epidemic originated in Hermanos, a port city in Maeotia on the Black Sea, and quickly spread to the surrounding regions. Despite preventive measures, trade routes and densely populated cities provided an ideal environment for the disease to thrive. Within a short time, the epidemic surged southward, reaching the Tauric Peninsula and threatening the imperial capital itself.
Emperor Antiochos III, who had recently triumphed over his enemies and was successfully restoring his empire’s strength, suddenly faced an adversary that could not be vanquished by military might. The heavy loss of life, economic collapse, and renewed weakening of the administrative system shook his confidence in his reign
When the emperor himself contracted typhus, his condition deteriorated not only due to the illness but also due to growing despair. A ruler who had long displayed resilience and determination was now forced to watch as his efforts to rebuild the empire crumbled within mere months.
Despite the best efforts of physicians and priests, Antiochos III could not overcome the disease. In September 1282 AD, after weeks of battling typhus, he passed away in his palace, leaving the empire without a strong and experienced leader.
His death plunged the court into mourning while also sparking anxiety among the nobility, who knew that the imperial throne would now pass to an infant. Fears arose that another era of chaos and intrigue might follow, as many powerful lords sought to expand their influence during a regency.
The only heir to the throne was his one-year-old son, Artemidoros VI, who was far too young to rule. Thus, power fell to the regency, led by the late emperor’s widow, Batulun.
A new period of uncertainty loomed over the empire, in which the young ruler’s future and the state’s stability depended on the strength and skill of his mother and advisors. With the epidemic still raging and the ambitions of the aristocracy growing, the fate of the empire hung by a thread.
Following the death of Antiochos III, the empire plunged into a profound crisis. The throne passed to an infant, Artemidoros VI, who was incapable of ruling independently, leaving the burden of governance on his mother and regent, Empress Batulun. The situation was further complicated by the ongoing typhus plague ravaging the empire and Batulun herself being wounded in an assassination attempt.
It was unclear who was behind the attempt on her life—political opponents, discontented nobles, or assassins hired by her personal enemies. Despite her injuries, the regent refused to relinquish power and, defying her physical weakness, continued making decisions to maintain the empire’s stability.
Meanwhile, the young emperor’s life hung by a thread. Artemidoros VI, still frail and susceptible to illness, fell victim to the epidemic. His health deteriorated sharply at the end of 1282 AD, sparking panic at court.
Knowing her son’s survival depended on a single individual, Empress Batulun entrusted his treatment to Moca Zipryid, a court physician and healer. However, she recognized she could not rely on hope alone—she openly threatened Moca that if the young emperor died, the healer would face a brutal and cruel fate. Under this pressure, Moca spared no effort to save the ailing ruler.
While Artemidoros VI’s life remained in peril, the empire’s nobility sought to exploit the chaos. Eudoxos, governor of the Aegean Islands, along with a group of influential aristocrats, demanded the deposition of the sickly emperor, arguing that the empire could not wait for him to mature and needed a strong, capable ruler.
As an alternative, they proposed installing Heliodoros, governor of Olbe, as emperor under the control of noble houses. Batulun, despite her precarious position, refused. She knew acquiescing would mean the loss of her son’s imperial inheritance and near-certain death for both of them. She also understood that most of the imperial army remained loyal, giving her a chance to survive the coming conflict.
When negotiations collapsed, civil war erupted in March 1283 AD. Eudoxos and his allies mobilized their forces, while the regency’s supporters prepared to defend Artemidorus VI’s rule.
Fortunately, by the time war broke out, the young emperor had survived the worst of his illness and began to recover. Though still weak, his survival was a major victory for Batulun’s regency, allowing her to focus on securing her son’s throne. With the war’s onset, the empire’s fate grew uncertain once more, and Artemidoros VI’s future now depended not only on his health but also on his supporters’ strength in battle.
The civil war engulfing the Tauric Empire began with decisive clashes on the Tauric Peninsula. The first pivotal engagement was the Battle of Taphros, where rebels loyal to Heliodoros attempted to seize a strategic fortress controlling access to the peninsula.
A rebel army of 64,000 soldiers besieged the city, hoping for a swift victory. However, imperial commanders, anticipating this move, concentrated an 81,000-strong force to defend the fortress.
After days of heavy fighting, the garrison, reinforced by arriving troops, launched a successful counterattack, scattering the rebel camp and forcing their retreat. The battle ended in disaster for Heliodoros, who lost thousands of soldiers, and his plan to seize the peninsula was thwarted.
Days later, another clash occurred near Kernikitis in the peninsula’s center. With rebel forces crushed in the north, their allies attempted a landing on the southern coast to capture Satyria, the imperial capital.
Against the 34,000-strong rebel army, imperial commanders sent a larger force that encircled the enemy in a surprise maneuver. Trapped against the coast, the rebels were annihilated, with most killed or captured during their flight to ships. This victory cemented Batulun’s control over the peninsula and dealt the rebels a crippling blow early in the war.
During the conflict, the empire faced not only military threats but also internal intrigue. Artemidoros VI himself survived an assassination attempt, narrowly avoiding death.
Thanks to the vigilance of Yvedokia Semoyov, a spymaster loyal to Batulun, a plot to poison the young emperor was uncovered and foiled. The conspirators were captured and executed, bolstering the regent’s authority by demonstrating her ability to maintain palace control despite betrayal.
Amid the civil war, regional dynamics shifted dramatically. The sudden death of Batulun’s brother, Great Khan Albolad I, led to the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into independent khanates. This loss of a key ally and the potential threat from Mongol warlords further complicated the empire’s struggles.
The civil war, which devastated the Tauric Empire for over two years, ended in May 1285 AD when imperial forces compelled the rebel nobles to surrender. After a series of defeats and the loss of key fortresses, Eudoxos capitulated in exchange for amnesty, followed by his allies.
The empire emerged victorious, but at a pyrrhic cost: the land was ruined, cities lay in rubble, and the population was decimated by both war and the lingering typhus plague.
Batulun’s victory did not mark the end of the empire’s trials. Mere months after the war, in mid-1285 AD, alarming news arrived of a new epidemic—Babruyskina Pox, a deadly disease first emerging in Gelts (Kyiv).
Rapidly spreading, the plague heralded another wave of destabilization, famine, and death, threatening to further weaken the empire. Batulun, triumphant in war, now faced an enemy that could not be defeated by swords or strategy.
In a short time, the Babruyskina Pox spread across almost the entire Tauric Empire, following the great rivers of Eastern Europe and reaching both the western and eastern provinces. By the turn of 1285 and 1286 AD, it had also reached the Tauric Peninsula, which once again became a stage for tragedy.
Regent Batulun, recalling previous epidemics, took desperate preventive measures. The capital and the imperial palace were isolated from the rest of the empire, with gates closed and contact with the outside world restricted. This was intended to protect the young Emperor Artemidoros VI and his closest circle, but instead of improving the situation, these actions sparked discontent among both the populace and the nobility.
Eudoxos, the former rebel leader, was ultimately stripped of all positions and influence, but his downfall did not calm the mood in the empire. On the contrary, growing distrust of Batulun's rule led many governors to whisper about her responsibility for bringing misfortune to the empire.
Rumors circulated that she and her son were a curse upon the empire, and worse, doubts began to arise about the legitimacy of Artemidoros VI himself. Many nobles openly questioned his lineage, claiming he was not the son of Antiochos III and that the Hyrcanis dynasty had long been broken. These rumors weakened Batulun's position, as she increasingly lost control over the situation in the empire.
At the head of the new opposition to the regent and her son stood Asclepiades, the powerful governor of Styr, one of the most influential western nobles. Exploiting growing discontent and fear caused by the epidemic, he issued an ultimatum demanding Batulun and her son's abdication.
In exchange for promised stability, he proposed installing Heliodoros of Thahent, a member of a collateral branch of the Hyrcanis dynasty, on the imperial throne. Ironically, the new claimant bore the same name as the previous usurper, Heliodoros of Olbe, who had fled the empire after his defeat in the civil war.
Asclepiades' demands gained support from many discontented nobles, who saw an opportunity to weaken central authority and increase their own influence. Batulun, however, had no intention of surrendering without a fight. Faced with the threat of another civil war, she began frantic preparations to defend her son's throne.
The regent's rejection of the ultimatum was inevitable—stepping down would mean the end of her son's rule and likely their deaths. In response to Asclepiades' demands, Batulun summoned loyal commanders and court members, declaring that no force would take her son's throne, which was his by right of blood.
Although some nobles leaned toward compromise, Batulun knew that yielding would mean her downfall and imminent death. When her response reached Styr, Asclepiades immediately began mobilizing his troops, and other rebels gathered their armies, proclaiming that Batulun and her son's rule was an usurpation that must end.
The Second Civil War, In the initial phase of the conflict, the rebels, taking advantage of the empire's post-epidemic weakness, moved against key fortresses in the western provinces. The troops loyal to the young emperor, though more numerous, struggled with logistical issues and losses from previous battles. Asclepiades' early successes, capturing several strategic cities in the empire's western provinces, strengthened his position.
Batulun quickly took action. Thanks to loyal commanders like General Molon, the imperial legions managed to halt the rebels' advance and launch a counterattack.
The Battle of Gelts, fought in the spring of 1290 AD, was one of the bloodiest clashes of the second civil war. The imperial army, numbering 63,000 soldiers, faced a 56,000-strong rebel force led by Asclepiades. Both sides knew this battle could decide the war's outcome.
Despite their positional advantage, the rebels were forced into an open-field battle when the imperial legions, under General Molon, executed a surprise encircling maneuver. In the early hours of the battle, the imperial army gained the upper hand, crushing the rebel left flank and forcing it to retreat. However, in the center, the rebel troops put up fierce resistance, preventing a total collapse of their lines.
Despite the imperial forces' initial success, the battle did not result in a complete victory. Asclepiades, seeing mounting losses, ordered a retreat, covering it with reorganized cavalry units. This maneuver allowed the rebels to avoid total defeat, though their losses were enormous—nearly half their army was killed or captured.
The imperial troops, exhausted by the prolonged war, were unable to pursue and completely destroy the enemy. Thus, the Battle of Gelts ended as a strategic victory for the loyalists but did not resolve the war.
Realizing that further clashes could lead to mutual annihilation, both Batulun and Asclepiades agreed to peace talks. After weeks of negotiations, the sides agreed to a white peace and a three-year truce, lasting until 1293 AD.
Under the agreement, Emperor Artemidoros VI remained on the throne, and his mother retained the regency. However, Asclepiades and other rebels were not held accountable and instead pledged loyalty to the crown. Though the peace seemed fragile, the temporary truce allowed the empire to recover from the exhausting conflict.
The years 1290–1293 AD were a time of escalating chaos in the Tauric Empire. Although the agreement after the Battle of Gelts brought a brief peace, real imperial authority continued to weaken. Great nobles and governors of the southern provinces increasingly ignored Batulun's orders and the imperial administration, making independent political and military decisions.
The most blatant act of rebellion came from Maximos, governor of Thessaly, who in 1292 AD severed ties with the throne and submitted to the authority of Germanos I, King of Crete and the Levant. This unprecedented event would normally have provoked an immediate military response. However, Batulun, gravely ill and weakened, was unable to act, and the imperial administration fell into paralysis.
Batulun's death at the end of 1293 AD sealed the further collapse of central authority. The regent, who had held the reins of power for years, was the only real pillar of support for the young emperor. Her death left the 14-year-old Artemidoros VI in a dire situation.
Without a strong guardian and surrounded by feuding court factions, the young ruler could not independently counter the growing anarchy. Nobles openly questioned his right to the throne, and many former rebels, granted amnesty, began plotting against the crown once more.
When the three-year truce expired in January 1294 AD, Ascleiades wasted no time—he took up arms again, aiming to remove Artemidoros VI from the throne. The renewed hostilities immediately favored the rebels, who were better prepared and had significant forces. This time, Asclepiades sought not partial concessions but the complete overthrow of the young emperor.
The Third Civil War, lasting from 1294 to 1299 AD, was the bloodiest and most devastating conflict to afflict the Tauric Empire in the 13th century. From the outset, fighting raged on multiple fronts, and the loyalist forces, lacking effective leadership and weakened by years of previous wars, struggled against increasingly bold rebel offensives.
Asclepiades, exploiting the disintegration of the imperial administration after Batulun's death, gradually took control of the western provinces while negotiating with discontented governors in the south and east. The imperial armies, led by inexperienced regents acting on behalf of the young Emperor Artemidoros VI, could not counter the rebels' growing influence.
The turning point of the war came in 1299 AD, when a decisive battle took place near the capital itself. The imperial legions, numbering around 74,000 soldiers, faced a rebel army of 68,000 warriors.
The imperial forces were commanded by Molon, a loyal general and one of the most experienced strategists of his generation. Despite early successes, morale among the defenders was low—the prolonged war had exhausted both men and supplies.
The decisive blow, however, came from an unexpected quarter—Molon, tempted by Asclepiades' promises, betrayed the empire and joined the rebels, leading to the complete collapse of the capital's defenses.
In October 1299 AD, following Molon's betrayal, Asclepiades' forces entered the capital almost unopposed. Artemidoros VI, betrayed and isolated, attempted to take refuge in the imperial palace, but his supporters were quickly captured or killed.
Ultimately, the young emperor was murdered on the orders of the new rulers, and his death symbolically marked the end of the Hyrcanis dynasty. After capturing the capital, Molon and Ascleiades began negotiations on the empire's future.
Instead of placing Heliodoros of Thahent on the throne, Asclepiades declared that Molon, as the victorious military leader, should become the new ruler. Under the treaty signed in early 1299 AD, Molon officially assumed power as Molon III, ending the period of war and chaos.
Fresco depicting the signing of the electoral agreement (late 15th century AD) – (Bing)
The new political order of the Tauric Empire, established by the agreement between Molon III and Asclepiades, transformed the foundations of imperial power, ending the era of absolute dominance by the emperor. Under the treaty, the empire was to function as a federation of independent duchies, with the great governors granted near-complete sovereignty over their lands.
The previous centralization of power was dismantled, and Molon III, though holding the title of emperor, was in practice merely the first among equals, chosen by an assembly of the seven princes of the new empire. This fundamental change marked the end of the Hyrcanis dynasty's absolute rule and ushered in an era of aristocratic governance.
Molon III secured certain privileges to strengthen his position within the new elite. Through skillful negotiations, he gained control over key regions such as Gorggipia, Phanagoria, and Taurica, which gave him a dominant position in the new political system.
These lands, once the core of imperial power, became his personal domain and source of strength. This allowed his faction to influence the selection of future rulers, theoretically ensuring relative stability in the empire. In practice, however, the new power structure led to rivalries among the duchies, and decentralization quickly raised concerns about the empire's future.
Meanwhile, in the south, these changes were met with outright rejection. The governors of Anatolia, Hellas, and the southern Caucasus, seeing the weakening of central authority, refused to recognize the new order and effectively seceded from the Tauric Empire, declaring their territories independent. The rulers of these lands, who had already enjoyed significant autonomy, exploited the political chaos to completely break free.
Mosaic of the Zoticid dynasty coat of arms (late 15th century) – (ChatGPT)
Historians unanimously regard these events as the end of the medieval era in the history of the Tauric Empire. For centuries, the state had been a centralized monarchy where the emperor wielded nearly unlimited power over his people and army.
The fall of the Hyrcanis dynasty and the introduction of an electoral system for emperors by the princes symbolically marked the end of this era. The new system of governance, though initially appearing to be a compromise solution, in reality led to further conflicts and rivalries.
With the dawn of the 14th century, the Tauric Empire entered a new, uncertain era. Decentralization, intended to bring balance and stability, became a source of endless conflicts and competition among regional rulers. Imperial power, once absolute and unchallenged, became a shadow of its former self, and the future of the Tauric Empire appeared to be one of uncertainty and continued struggles for dominance.
