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65 - Toward the Padus Valley (196 - 194)

In 231 the Lex Antonia was passed, reducing the Term of Consuls from five years to two years. This meant, that Consuls had less time to achieve their own political agenda. This also meant, that they had to act faster in gaining support, if they wanted to implement a major political or strategic change.

In early 196 Agrippa Anicius was elected as First Consul. The Anicii family was a rather new family in political Rome, that had benefited and maybe also worked toward the political decline of the Fabii family in the 220s.

Diodor, quoting an older source, describes Agrippa as almost everything Romans strived to be as individuals. Intelligent, industrious, eloquent. His Second Consul was Volesus Anicius from a different branch of the family.

Almost immediately after the beginning of their Term, Volesus tried to raise funds to build new Temples for the currently popular cult of Apollon. Agrippa vehemently opposed this project and advocated to focus on Rome`s own religious heritage and traditions and instead renovate existing places of worship to Jupiter.

Agrippa, portraying himself as defender of the "Old Rome" versus alien influences, gained the support of the Traditionalists. Today it is assumed, that the debate was fabricated by Agrippa and Volesus in order to unite most of the Senate behind Agrippa`s position and pave the ground for the really relevant issue.

Since the Ligurian War of 260 / 259, the northern border of the Republic was stable on the southern side of the Apennine mountains roughly from Savona in the west to Rimini in the east. An exception to the rule was around 210, when a local conflict mostly depopulated the area around Ravenna and Rome took advantage of that in order to push its border further north.

Northern Italy was known as Cisaline Gaul (Gaul on this side of the Alps). It was further divided into Gaul Cispadana and Transpadana (Gaul on this / the far side of the Padus River, which is the Po River today). The whole region was populated by four Tribes. In the west the Taurini, in the center the Cenomani and Insubri. Eventually the Veneti to the east.

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Agrippa reminded the Senate of the Gaul threat to the north. That the fertile valley of the Padus river would be the perfect breeding ground for a second Brennus, just waiting to gather forces for another sacking of Rome. Eventually the Senate agreed to put the Hispanian Campaign on hold, raise new forces and turn Rome`s focus toward the North.

The first step in subjugating Cisalpine Gaul was the valley south of the river. That brought the Republic into instant conflict with the Cenomani and their Allies, the Insubri and Leponzi. The war began in late summer 196 with the invasion of the Cenomani holdings. Until the end of the Campaign in early 194 there were numerous skirmishes with small Gaul armies. But the main focus of the war was on the sieges of Mutina (today: Modena) and Placentia (today: Piacenza).

The siege of Placentia, a city inhabited by the Insubri, took more than nine months, but in April 194 the settlement had to surrender. At the same time the Cenomani surrendered and the war was over, with the southern valley now under firm control of the Republic.
 
66 - The Taurinian Campaign (193)

After the successful march into the Po Valley, the Republic strived to gain a foothold in Transpadana. In order to avoid the fortified river crossings further to the east, they turned westward and began the invasion of the territory of the Taurini.

Little is known about the Campaign of 193, besides that the former Consul Agrippa Anicius served as Tribune in it. There are no reports about the Taurini, whose influence stretched across the Alps into Gaul, made any effort to meet the Romans on the battlefield.

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North Italy in late 193​

So the Campaign evolved around the sieges of Vercellae (Vercelli) and Taurasia (Turin). These were finished in late summer of that year and the Cisalpine holdings of the Taurini were annexed by the Republic, that now controlled all western mountain passes.
 
67 - Transpadana subdued (190 - 189)

With the west of Cisalpine Gaul secured, the remaining hostile factions in northern Italy were the Insubres and Cenomani, which controlled most of the territories north of the Po river. In a Campaign, that lasted from early 190 to early 189, the Republic eliminated these two entities.

The Roman main force seemed to have attacked from the west into the lands of the Insubres, which were occupied quickly due to a lack of fortified places. As the west was secured, another small Roman force crossed the Po from the south and began the siege of Bedriacum, that would end in mid 190.

The remaining Campaign focused on the siege of Verona and the area east of the Lake Garda. A Gaul relieve force had crossed the Alps in late autumn and was marching toward Verona, but came too late to avoid the city`s surrender in November. About two weeks later, the combined Roman force of at least twenty thousand Legionaries faced the numerically slightly inferior Gauls at a place named Bretina, that has not been identified yet.

According to available sources, despite the large number of participants, the battle must have ended early, when the Gauls decided to retreat from the battlefield in considerably good order. While most of the Gauls returned to their homes north of the Alps, a small part of it was later destroyed in a skirmish.

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Cisalpine Gaul in 189​

In early 189, after a bit less of seven years, the Republic had annexed all of Cisalpine Gaul except the parts belonging to the Veneti, with which it had still good relations.
 
And so the security of Rome itself is ensured.
 
68 - The Getae War (188 - 187)

One of the problems about ancient European history outside the Greco-Roman world is the lack of native written sources. The multitude of known people do usually appear in books written by Roman or Greek authors, who did not necessarily have the insight to point out differences or similarities between tribes.

One of these examples are the Getae, which may or may not be identical with the Dacians. What seems to be clear is, that around 300 they dwelled at the northern lower Danube in what is today southern Romania. During the 3rd Century they move further into the spotlight of ancient authors, since they significantly expanded their influence and subdued one neighbor after another.

In the early 2nd Century the Getae controlled a realm, that stretched from western Bulgaria through Romania along the Black Sea to the Crimea and was thus the largest entity in the region besides the Roman Republic.

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In the early 180s Rome decided to contest ownership of holdings in regions known as Dindaria and Paeonia. It began the Campaign, that would last for less than a year, in spring 188. The Legions advanced quickly into today`s Bulgaria and reached the Danube. But the focus seemed to have been at a still not identified place along the Iskar river.

According to Cassius Dio, the Romans had to repel three different attacks there along with further skirmishes at other places. Although the alleged casualties of thirty thousand soldiers on the side of the Getae is probably exaggerated, it is believed that the Romans earned clear victories.

This led to a peace treaty in early 187, that ceded the disputed areas to the Republic and that got organized within the province of Macedonia in the aftermath.
 
Surely, both the Veneti and Carthage are getting restless now...
 
69 - The Olcadian Campaign (186)

For a decade, the Republic had put its Hispanian Campaigns on hold in order to secure its northern flank in Cisalpine Gaul and adjust its borders in Macedonia. In the mid 180s it turned its attention toward Hispania again and one of the reasons for that was the rise of the Olcades.

The Olcades initially settled the lands west of Sagunt, but took advantage of the weakened position of the city in the course of the Roman expansion. During the 190s, it conquered the city of Sagunt and also expanded across the Tagus River (today: Tajo) to subdue the tribe of the Arevaci. By 186 they had established a considerably large buffer state between Roman and Carthaginian holdings.

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Rome, in its desire to close up to and, eventually, reduce Carthaginian territory on the peninsula, had to turn south toward the Olcades. During the Campaign of 186, that lasted for a little more than half a year, it faced no significant resistance, although the Olcades were supported by the Calures to the west. By the end of the year, Rome controlled the former Olcadian holdings north of the Tajo.
 
70 - The Campaign of 185

In 185 the Republic was occupied with events in northern Hispania, although the nature of these events remains unclear. Appian only notes, that the Republic "expanded its protection to local tribes". But it remains unclear, whether these people actually asked to become subjects of the Republic or were forced into submission.

It is assumed, that the Romans got involved into Tribal affairs mostly evolving around the Tamarici. But later sources imply, that at least parts of them were independent outside the Republic in the following decades. Nevertheless it is possible, that parts of them were integrated into the Republic.

From the scarce descriptions available one may come to the conclusion, that a territory between the modern cities of Bilbao and Burgos became Roman.
 
71 - Mallorca and Menorca (184 - 183)

Only a few of the millions of Tourists that head toward the Balearic Islands nowadays will spend a lot of thoughts about the origin of that name, for which there are different explanations provided by ancient authors.

While some authors pointed out, that the Greeks named the native population Baleareis after the Greek word for "to launch" as a hint toward the population`s skill as slingers, Strabo suggests, that the word may have a Phoenician origin of unknown meaning.

Lycophron also called the islands Gymnesiae after the Greek word for naked and came up with an explanation, how Greek shipwrecked sailors ended up naked at the shores of the island. It was again Strabo, who made an alternative attempt and suggested, that the description "naked" may refer to the fact, that the local troops were only lightly armored.

However it may be, the group of islands that is now called Balearics were once divided into the Gymnesians (Mallorca and Menorca) and the Pityuses (Ibiza and Formentera). In 184 the Republic began a short campaign to obtain control of the Gymnesic Islands.

The reasoning behind this was probably, that the Roman territory in Hispania had greatly increased in the prior two decades and shipping between Hispania and Italy became more important. The islands with their natural harbors were a good base to disrupt these shipping lanes, hence Rome probably felt the need to secure all civilian and military shipping in the region.

Rome assaulted both islands simultaneously. While Menorca was quickly subdued, the population of Mallorca had established two fortified positions at Guium and today`s Palma. It took until late 184 to finish both sieges and until early 183 until the last resistance in the northeast of Mallorca was broken. After that, the two islands became part of the Republic.
 
72 - The Second Olcadian Campaign (182 - 181)

During the first Campaign, the Olcades had lost all their recently annexed territory north of the Tajo river. Anticipating, that the Republic would inevitably strive to also seize the rest of their land, they had established further contacts to other central Hispanian tribes in order to form an Alliance. In early 182, they had the support of four other Tribes.

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At the same time, Rome started a two-pronged attack. One force advanced along the coast to begin the siege of Sagunt. The second army crossed the border toward a fortified place called Loutien. Although most of the Roman forces were bogged down with siege works, the Commanders managed to lure the Hispanian forces away from Roman territory.

Between mid 182 and early 181 there may have been up to seven skirmishes between Loutien and a place called Carrara, in which the Romans caused significant casualties among the Tribal forces. By march 181 both sieges were won. The eastern Roman force was free to move westward, and so the focus of the Campaign moved toward the territory of the Caluri and Tirtaliques.

In October 181, the last battle of the Campaign was fought at Voluca. Although the battle was not a clear victory for the Republic, the Tribes had experienced so high casualties in the year before, that they were not able to continue the fight. Eventually a peace was signed. While the whole territory of the Olcares was annexed, no other Tribe had to suffer territorial losses.

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With the elimination of the Olcares, the last remaining buffer state between the Romans and Carthaginians was gone. The stage was set for the clash between the two cities for the supremacy over Hispania.
 
Well, Hispania is gradually being subjugated.

It also seems as if there might be a rival arising in the East...
 
It is May and I have the vacation the next weeks. Mayyyyyybe I can post a chapter or two, but don`t count on it. I am definitely back again as of 30th May with the Third Punic War - Hispanian Shenanigans ;)
 
Carthage will suffer.
 
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