XVII — EUROPE IN FLUX (1041–1069)
Coronation of Charlemagne by Friedrich Kaulbach
Much of Europe in the 11th century experienced significant upheaval following the disastrous 1038 Crusade, chief among these recipients being the Holy Roman Empire, a state of the Carolingians which had, since its formation in Paris in the 10th century, forged an empire which extended from the Bay of Biscay in the west to the banks of the Oder river in the east, with the functioning of the empire reliant on the harmonious cooperation between lord and vassal—only made more difficult with the conquest of Germany sometime in the late-10th century. Following the Cordovan Crusade, the animosity and distrust which many east of the Rhine felt towards their Frankish conquerors only grew; many within Saxony and Bavaria, especially, believed themselves to be the true heirs to Charlemagne's legacy, and had made attempts to shift the geographic centre of the empire eastward, with varying degrees of success since 970. The lack of cooperation between German and French princes in the 1038 Crusade had amplified the level of distrust between the two sides of the state, culminating in a series of revolts by innumerable princes across the peripheries of the empire—Germany and Spain experiencing the most significant turmoil, resulting in the County of Barcelona's formal separation from the Kingdom of France in 1057.
Ironically, the events following the catastrophe of the 1038 Crusade had been important years for the Spanish Reconquista, as the collapse of the Cordovan Emirate's northern client states had given rise to a number of Christian realms—most importantly in Aragon—with the aid of minor expeditions from southern France and Catalonia. With the death of Ramiro, the new Count of Aragon in 1045, Isabella, the Countess of Barcelona had inherited Ramiro's titles via election by a number of Christian barons, and had declared a new Aragonese kingdom the following year, incorporating the County of Barcelona into the Crown of Aragon, and had created the Kingdom of Valencia out of the old Cordovan lands of Sharq al-Andalus in late-1046. In the following decade, the Crown of Aragon—or more specifically, Isabella, had become the main driver of the Reconquista by 1050.
Bottom Left: map of northern Spain, c. 1050
For England, the tumultuous state of Europe in the mid-11th century had little affect on the status quo which had prevailed in Great Britain since 983, with the unification of the Welsh princes. For Æthelred, the concessions that had been made following the disaster of the Cordovan Crusade had been minor, primarily involving the restoration of the Cerdicings' de facto control over much of Wessex in 1044, followed by the appointment of Beorn I—cousin of Æthelred—to the East Anglian Ealdormanry after twelve years of direct administration by the crown. Despite the embarrassment experienced during the 1038 Crusade, support, especially among Mercian and Northumbrian nobles remained secure during the tumult of the mid-11th century. Æthelred also enjoyed the support of the clergy for much of his reign, and upon the appointment of
Eadfrith the Good as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1042, had become a significant patron of the Catholic Church in England, and had committed himself to a life of piety and humility. Between 1042 and 1060, Æthelred had contributed to the construction of a number of monastic houses in Essex and Mercia—proof of this being a series of royal charters penned by the king during this period, the most important document among these being a charter granting land to the Diocese of London for the construction of an abbey in Bermondsey in 1044.
In 1048, Æthelred's wife, Benoîte, had passed away, their marriage producing no children. in 1050, Æthelred's cousin and Ealdorman of East Anglia—Beorn—was endorsed to be the next king. Though young, he was charismatic, and had a basic understanding of statecraft. Furthermore, he had a three-year-old son; Beorhtric, ensuring the security of succession should he become the next monarch. During this time of political stability, England had undergone an important period of economic growth. Most notably, the wool trade, which had become an increasingly important English export had seen significant growth between 1030 and 1060, and if it was not the case previously, had become one of the wealthiest industries within England by the 11th century. While many within Wessex still grumbled—the new Lady of Wessex, Ælfthryth, chief among them, much of England's nobility believed Æthelred had proven himself as a capable king—his only shortcoming being the inability to produce an heir—willingly or otherwise.
Right: Map of England, 1054 with East Anglia highlighted
Tragically, this period of internal stability would come to an abrupt end following the death of Beorn in 1059 at the age of 30—likely from asphyxiation. For the East Angles, and the Witan, more specifically, there remained an air of uncertainty as to who should become the next king. By this point, Æthelred—nearing 71 by the time of Beorn's passing—had removed himself from the governance of the realm, and had committed himself almost entirely to spiritual matters. While praised by the devout for his piety and saintly demeanour, the 1060s had brought England a king entirely disinterested in the governance of his own kingdom. For the nobility, it had become a scramble for power and favours amongst each other—but more ideally to gain the support of Æthelred. Edward, cousin of the king and Ealdorman of York—a position which had grown to encompass the entirety of Deira, Bernicia and Lindsey—seemed to be the most popular candidate among the Witan. While annual gatherings of the council had become less frequent—largely attributed to the absence of the king in administrative matters—Edward had impressed England's aristocracy with his military competence, having defeated two Viking invasions of Northumbria between 1052 and 1066.
Another, less popular candidate was of the original, ancient line of Cerdic—Ælfthryth—the Lady of Wessex. She was a direct descendant of the last West Saxon king,
Sigered, and had staked her claim to the English throne by 1059, citing her royal lineage. However, her reputation suffered due to her involvement in the murder of a key Wessex magnate who had supported Æthelred’s rise to power and intended to do the same for Edward. By 1069, Æthelred, then 79 years old, had fallen gravely ill. The Witenagemot of 1070—held notably without the king’s presence—narrowly elected Edward as the next King of the English.
"A Witenagemot" by William Henry Margetson
